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CARNEGIE INSTITUTION
OF WASHINGTON

YEAR BOOK No. 42
July 1, 1942— June 30, 1943

With Administrative Reports through December 7, 1943

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

WASHINGTON, D. C.

1943

THE LORD BALTIMORE PRESS, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

CONTENTS

PAGES

Officers and Staff v-x

Organization, Plan, and Scope xi

Articles of Incorporation xii-xiv

By-Laws of the Institution xv-xviii

Abstract of Minutes of the Forty-fifth Meeting of the Board of Trustees xix

Report of the Executive Committee xxi— xxv

Report of Auditors xxvi— xxxii

Report of the President i—io

Reports of Departmental Activities and Cooperative Studies
Astronomy

Mount Wilson Observatory 1-22

Special Projects

Dirk Brouwer 23

S. A. Mitchell 23- 25

Terrestrial Sciences

Geophysical Laboratory 27— 29

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 31— 59

Special Projects

Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations 61—69

S. E. Forbush and Isabelle Lange 62— 63

Victor F. Hess 63— 64

Thomas H. Johnson 64— 65

S. A. KorfiF 65-66

Robert A. Millikan and Carl D. Anderson 66- 68

Carl E. Nielsen and Wilson M. Powell 68- 69

Biological Sciences

Division of Plant Biology 71—104

Department of Embryology 105-122

Department of Genetics 123— 161

Nutrition Laboratory 163—165

Special Projects

W. E. Castle 167

Paul S. Conger 168-169

Arthur T. Hertig and John Rock 169-170

T. H. Morgan, Helen Redfield, and L. V. Morgan 171-174

G. Oscar Russell 174-175

iii

CONTENTS

Historical Research pages

Division of Historical Research 177—187

Special Projects

Marion E. Blake 189

Paleontology, Early Man, and Historical Geology: John C. Merriam 190—198

Bibliography 199-200

Index 201—208

PRESIDENT AND TRUSTEES

Thomas Barbour
James F. Bell
Robert Woods Bliss
Lindsay Bradford
Frederic A. Delano
Homer L. Ferguson
W. Cameron Forbes
Walter S. Gifford

Vannevar Bush
Frederic A. Delano

Henning W, Prentis, Jr.
Elihu Root, Jr.
Henry R. Shepley
Richard P. Strong
Charles P. Taft
James W. Wadsworth
Frederic C. Walcott
Lewis H. Weed

PRESIDENT

Vannevar Bush

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

W. Cameron Forbes, Chairman

Walter S. Gifford, V ice-Chairman

Frederic A. Delano, Secretary

Herbert Hoover
Walter A. Jessup
Frank B. Jewett
Alfred L. Loomis
Roswell Miller
Henry S. Morgan
Seeley G. Mudd
John J. Pershing

Executive Committee

W. Cameron Forbes, Chairman

Walter S. Gifford
Walter A. Jessup
Henry R. Shepley

V inane e Committee

Frederic C. Walcott, Chairman
Lindsay Bradford Henning W. Prentis, Jr.

Walter S. Gifford Elihu Root, Jr.

Auditing Committee

Frederic A. Delano, Chairman
Robert Woods Bliss James W. Wadsworth

STANDING COMMITTEES FOR THE YEAR 1944

Committee on Astronomy

Herbert Hoover, Chairman

Frederic C. Walcott
Lewis H. Weed

Walter S. Gifford
Roswell Miller

Seeley G. Mudd
Elihu Root, Jr.

Committee on Terrestrial Sciences

Frank B. Jewett, Chairman
Frederic A. Delano Henry S. Morgan

Homer L. Ferguson Frederic C. Walcott

Committee on Biological Sciences
Lewis H. Weed, Chairman

Thomas Barbour
James F. Bell

Alfred L. Loomis
Henning W. Prentis, Jr.

Committee on Historical Research

Henry R. Shepley, Chairman
Robert Woods Bliss Charles P. Taft

Richard P. Strong James W. Wadsworth

FORMER PRESIDENTS AND TRUSTEES

PRESIDENTS

Daniel Coit Gilman, 1902—04 Robert Simpson Woodward,

John Campbell Merriam, President 1921—38; President Emeritus 1939—

1904—20

Alexander Agassiz
George J. Baldwin
John S. Billings
Robert S. Brookings
John L. Cadwalader
William W. Campbell
John J. Carty
Whitefoord R. Cole
Cleveland H. Dodge
William E. Dodge
Charles P. Fenner
Simon Flexner
William N. Frew
Lyman J. Gage
Cass Gilbert
Frederick H. Gillett
Daniel C. Gilman
John Hay
Myron T. Herrick
Abram S. Hewitt
Henry L. Higginson
Ethan A. Hitchcock
Henry Hitchcock
William Wirt Howe
Charles L. Hutchinson
Samuel P. Langley
Charles A. Lindbergh
William Lindsay
Henry Cabot Lodge
Seth Low

TRUSTEES

1904—05

Wayne MacVeagh

1902-07

1925—27

Andrew J. Mellon

!9 2 4-37

1902—13

Darius O. Mills

1902—09

1910—29

S. Weir Mitchell

1902—14

1903-14

Andrew J. Montague

1907-35

1929-38

William W. Morrow

1902—29

1916-32

William Church Osborn

1927-34

!9 2 5-34

James Parmelee

I 9 I 7"3 I

1903-23

Wm. Barclay Parsons

1907-32

1902-03

Stewart Paton

1916—42

1914—24

George W. Pepper

1914-19

1910— 14

Henry S. Pritchett

1906-36

1902—15

Elihu Root

1902-37

1902—12

Julius Rosenwald

1929-31

1924-34

Martin A. Ryerson

1908-28

1924-35

Theobald Smith

1914-34

1902—08

John C. Spooner

1902—07

1902-05

William Benson Storey

1924-39

1915-29

William H. Taft

1906-15

1902-03

William S. Thayer

1929-32

1902—19

Charles D. Walcott

1902—27

1902-09

Henry P. Walcott

1910—24

1902-02

William H. Welch

1906-34

1903-09

Andrew D. White

1902—03

1902-04

Edward D. White

1902—03

1904-06

Henry White

1913-27

r 934-39

George W. Wickersham

1909-36

1902-09

Robert S. Woodward

1905—24

1914-24

Carroll D. Wright

1902—08

1902-16

Besides the names enumerated above, the following were ex-ofncio members of the Board
of Trustees under the original charter, from the date of organization until April 28, 1904:
the President of the United States, the President of the Senate, the Speaker of the House
of Representatives, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the President of the
National Academy of Sciences.

STAFF OF INVESTIGATORS FOR THE YEAR 1943

ASTRONOMY

Mount Wilson Observatory

Organized in 1904; George E. Hale, Director 1 904-1 923, Honorary Director 1 923-1 936

Walter S. Adams, Director

Alfred H. Joy, Secretary
*Arthur S. King, Supt. Physical Laboratory
*John A. Anderson

Walter Baade

Harold D. Babcock

William H. Christie

Theodore Dunham, Jr.

Joseph Hickox

Edison Hoge

Edwin P. Hubble

Milton L. Humason

Robert B. King
Paul W. Merrill
Rudolph Minkowski
Seth B. Nicholson
Edison Pettit
Robert S. Richardson
Roscoe F. Sanford
gustaf stromberg
Adriaan van Maanen
Olin C. Wilson
Ralph E. Wilson

TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES

Geophysical Laboratory

Organized in 1906, opened in 1907; Arthur L. Day, Director 1 907-1 936

Leason H. Adams, Director
John S. Burlew
Joseph L. England
Ralph E. Gibson
Roy W. Goranson
Joseph W. Greig
Earl Ingerson
Frank C. Kracek
Orville H. Loeffler
Herbert E. Merwin
George W. Morey

Elburt F. Osborn
Charles S. Piggot
Eugene Posnjak
Howard S. Roberts
John F. Schairer
Earnest S. Shepherd
George Tunell
William D. Urry
Fred E. Wright
Emanuel G. Zies

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism
Organized in 1904; Louis A. Bauer, Director 1904— 1929

John A. Fleming, Director

Oliver H. Gish, Assistant Director

Philip H. Abelson

Casper J. Aronson

Lloyd V. Berkner

Scott E. Forbush

George K. Green

Lawrence R. Hafstad

Norman P. Heydenburg

Ellis A. Johnson

Henry F. Johnston

Mark W. Jones

Paul G. Ledig

Alvin G. McNish

* Retired in 1943.

Robert C. Meyer (resigned)
Wilfred C. Parkinson
Richard B. Roberts
William J. Rooney
Walter E. Scott
Stuart L. Seaton
Kenneth L. Sherman
William F. Steiner
Oscar W. Torreson
Merle A. Tuve
Ernest H. Vestine
George R. Wait
Harry W. Wells

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Division of Plant Biology

Desert Laboratory, opened in 1903, became headquarters of Department of Botanical Research in 1905.
Name changed to Laboratory for Plant Physiology in 1923; reorganized in 1928 as Division of Plant
Biology, including Ecology.

Herman A. Spoehr, Chairman Emmett V. Martin

Jens C. Clausen Harold W. Milner

Garrett J. Hardin Forrest Shreve

William M. Hiesey James H. C. Smith

David D. Keck Harold H. Strain
Winston M. Manning

Department of Embryology

Organized in 1914; Franklin P. Mall, Director 191 4-1 9 17; George L. Streeter, Director 191 8-1940

George W. Corner, Director Chester H. Heuser, Curator of the

Robert K. Burns, Jr. Embryological Collection

Louis B. Flexner Margaret R. Lewis

Samuel R. M. Reynolds

Department of Genetics

Station for Experimental Evolution, opened in 1904, combined with Eugenics Record Office in 1921 to
form Department of Genetics. Charles B. Davenport, Director 1904-193 4; Albert F. Blakeslee, Director
1935-1941.

Milislav Demerec, Director James S. Potter

Ugo Fano, Research Associate Oscar Riddle

Berwind P. Kaufmann Morris Steggerda

Edwin C. MacDowell Harry E. Warmke
Barbara McClintock

Nutrition Laboratory
Organized in 1907, opened in 1908; Francis G. Benedict, Director 1 907-1 937
Thorne M. Carpenter, Director Robert C. Lee

V. COROPATCHINSKY

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Division of Historical Research

Department of Historical Research organized in 1903; Andrew C. McLaughlin, Director 1 903-1 905,
J. Franklin Jameson, Director 1 905-1 928. In 1930 this Department was incorporated as the Section of
United States History in a new Division of Historical Research.

Alfred V. Kidder, Chairman

Section of Aboriginal American History Section of Post-Columbian American History

Sylvanus G. Morley Eleanor B. Adams

Earl H. Morris Robert S. Chamberlain

Harry E. D. Pollock Ralph L. Roys

Tatiana Proskouriakoff France V. Scholes

Karl Ruppert Leo F. Stock

Anna O. Shepard

Edwin M. Shook Section of the History of Science

A. Ledyard Smith ^

„ ~ George Sarton

Robert h. Smith a t,

^ .. Alexander Pogo

Gustav Stromsvik

Sol Tax

J. Eric S. Thompson

Alfonso Villa R.

viii

RESEARCH ASSOCIATES

Marion E. Blake, Archaeology Newton B. Drury, Study of Primitive Areas

Paul S. Conger, Biology *Frank A. Perret, Geophysics

Research Associates Engaged in Post-Retirement Studies

Albert F. Blakeslee, Genetics George L. Streeter, Embryology

Frederick H. Seares, Astronomy

Research Associates Connected with Other Institutions

Ernest B. Babcock (University of California), Genetics

Edward L. Bowles (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Physics

Joseph C. Boyce (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Physics

E. H. Bramhall (University of Alaska), Terrestrial Magnetism

G. Breit (University of Wisconsin), Physics

Dirk Brouwer (Yale University), Astronomy

John P. Buwalda (California Institute of Technology), Geology and Paleontology

W. E. Castle (University of California), Biology

Ralph W. Chaney (University of California), Paleobotany

A. H. Compton (University of Chicago), Physics

Th. Dobzhansky (Columbia University), Genetics

Charles Elton (Oxford University), Climatology

G. Gamow (George Washington University), Physics

Frank T. Gucker, Jr. (Northwestern University), Chemistry

Ross Gunn (United States Naval Research Laboratory), Terrestrial Magnetism

Arthur T. Hertig (Boston Lying-in Hospital), Embryology

Victor F. Hess (Fordham University), Physics

A. Hollaender (National Institute of Health), Genetics

Thomas H. Johnson (Bartol Research Foundation), Physics

Elliott P. Joslin (New England Deaconess Hospital), Nutrition

Remington Kellogg (United States National Museum), Paleontology

George B. Kistiakowski (Harvard University), Chemistry

S. A. Korff (Bartol Research Foundation), Physics

E. A. Lowe (The Institute for Advanced Study), Paleography

Edwin D. McKee (United States National Park Service), Geology and Paleontology

Robert A. Millikan (California Institute of Technology), Physics

S. A. Mitchell (University of Virginia), Astronomy

T. H. Morgan (California Institute of Technology), Biology

Walter H. Newhouse (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Geophysics

Wilson M. Powell (University of California), Physics

Robert Redfield (University of Chicago), Anthropology

Henry N. Russell (Princeton University), Astronomy

H. C. Sherman (Columbia University), Nutrition

Joel Stebbins (University of Wisconsin), Astronomy

Chester Stock (California Institute of Technology), Paleontology

John T. Tate (University of Minnesota), Physics

* Deceased.

OFFICES OF ADMINISTRATION

Office of the President

Vannevar Bush, President

Walter M. Gilbert, Executive Officer

Samuel Callaway, President's Secretary

Office of Publications and Public Relations

*Theodore H. Dillon, Director
Ailene J. Bauer, Assistant to the Director
Dorothy R. Swift, Editor

Office of the Bursar

Earle B. Biesecker, Bursar

J. Stanley Lingebach, Assistant Bursar

Investment Office (New Yor\ City)

Devereux Josephs, Investment Officer
Parker Monroe, Investment Officer

* On leave of absence.

ORGANIZATION, PLAN, AND SCOPE

The Carnegie Institution of Washington was founded by Andrew Carnegie,
January 28, 1902, when he gave to a board of trustees an endowment of registered
bonds of the par value of ten million dollars. To this fund an addition of two
million dollars was made by Mr. Carnegie on December 10, 1907, and a further
addition of ten million dollars was made by him on January 19, 191 1. Further-
more, the income of a reserve fund of about three million dollars, accumulated
in accordance with the founder's specifications in 191 1, is now available for general
use and a sum of five million dollars has been paid by the Carnegie Corporation
of New York as an increase to the Endowment Fund of the Institution, payments
having been completed in 1931. The Institution was originally organized under
the laws of the District of Columbia and incorporated as the Carnegie Institution,
articles of incorporation having been executed on January 4, 1902. The Institu-
tion was reincorporated, however, by an act of the Congress of the United States,
approved April 28, 1904, under the title of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
(See existing Articles of Incorporation on following pages.)

Organization under the new Articles of Incorporation was effected May 18, 1904,
and the Institution was placed under the control of a board of twenty-four trustees,
all of whom had been members of the original corporation. The trustees meet
annually in December to consider the affairs of the Institution in general, the prog-
ress of work already undertaken, and the initiation of new projects, and to make
the necessary appropriations for the ensuing year. During the intervals between
the meetings of the trustees the affairs of the Institution are conducted by an Execu-
tive Committee chosen by and from the Board of Trustees and acting through
the President of the Institution as chief executive officer.

The Articles of Incorporation of the Institution declare in general "that the
objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and most liberal
manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application of knowledge
to the improvement of mankind."

The Institution is essentially an operating organization. It attempts to advance
fundamental research in fields not normally covered by the activities of other agen-
cies, and to concentrate its attention upon specific problems, with the idea of shift-
ing attack from time to time to meet the more pressing needs of research as they
develop with increase of knowledge. Some of these problems require the collabora-
tion of several investigators, special equipment, and continuous effort. Many close
relations exist among activities of the Institution, and a type of organization repre-
senting investigations in astronomy, in terrestrial sciences, in biological sciences,
and in historical research has been effected. Conference groups on various subjects
have played a part in bringing new vision and new methods to bear upon many
problems. Constant efforts are made to facilitate interpretation and application of
results of research activities of the Institution, and an Office of Publications and
Public Relations provides means for appropriate publication.

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION

Public No. 260. An Act to incorporate the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That the persons following being persons who are
now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings,
John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage,
Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William Wirt Howe, Charles L.
Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh,
Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock,
Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D.
Wright, their associates and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and
declared to be a body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington and by that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the
powers, limitations, and restrictions herein contained.

Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest
and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the applica-
tion of knowledge to the improvement of mankind; and in particular —

(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of science,
literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments, universities, col-
leges, technical schools, learned societies, and individuals.

(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research.

(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings, and acquire and maintain a library.

(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such building or
buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation.

(f) In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the objects
of the institution, with full power, however, to the trustees hereinafter appointed
and their successors from time to time to modify the conditions and regulations
under which the work shall be carried on, so as to secure the application of the
funds in the manner best adapted to the conditions of the time, provided that the
objects of the corporation shall at all times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto.

Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corporation and
the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested in a board of trus-
tees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the following individuals : Alexander
Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge, William N.
Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Gilman, John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, William
Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth
Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, William W. Morrow,
Ethan A. Hitchcoc\, Elihu Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D.
Walcott, Carroll D. Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The
board of trustees shall have power from time to time to increase its membership

xii

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION

to not more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resigna-
tion, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as the
by-laws shall prescribe; and the persons so elected shall thereupon become trustees
and also members of the said corporation. The principal place of business of the
said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia.

Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold, and administer
the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said Andrew Carnegie to the
trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds or property as may at any
time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them, or to such corporation, for the pur-
poses of the trust; and with full power from time to time to adopt a common seal,
to appoint such officers, members of the board of trustees or otherwise, and such
employees as may be deemed necessary in carrying on the business of the corpora-
tion, at such salaries or with such remuneration as they may deem proper; and
with full power to adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations
as may be necessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of
the corporation; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expend the
income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best promote
the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powers and authority
necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes of the donor. The
said trustees shall have further power from time to time to hold as investments
the securities hereinafter referred to so transferred by Andrew Carnegie, and any
property which has been or may be transferred to them or such corporation by
Andrew Carnegie or by any other person, persons, or corporation, and to invest
any sums or amounts from time to time in such securities and in such form and
manner as are permitted to trustees or to charitable or literary corporations for in-
vestment, according to the laws of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Massa-
chusetts, or in such securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed of
trust so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will and testa-
ment to be hereafter made or executed.

Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional donations,
grants, devises, or bequests which may be made in further support of the purposes
of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof the personal ex-
penses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or otherwise in carrying
out .the business of the trust, but the services of the trustees as such shall be gratuitous.

Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act a meeting
of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gilman, John S.
Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir Mitchell, John Hay, Elihu Root, and Carroll D.
Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Washington, in the District of Columbia,
by notice served in person or by mail addressed to each trustee at his place of resi-
dence; and the said trustees, or a majority thereof, being assembled, shall organize
and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect officers and appoint committees, and generally
to organize the said corporation; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the
corporation hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into
possession, custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the cor-
poration heretofore known as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as hereinbefore
set forth under "An Act to establish a Code of Law for the District of Columbia,

xiii

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all its rights, contracts, claims,
and property of any kind or nature; and the several officers of such corporation, or
any other person having charge of any of the securities, funds, real or personal,
books, or property thereof, shall, on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees
appointed by this Act or to the persons appointed by them to receive the same;
and the trustees of the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall
and may take such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of
this Act.

Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation known as
the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage of this
Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore mentioned, nor shall any liability
or obligation for the payment of any sums due or to become due, or any claim
or demand, in any manner or for any cause existing against the said existing cor-
poration, be released or impaired; but such corporation hereby incorporated is de-
clared to succeed to the obligations and liabilities and to be held liable to pay
and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so
existing to the same effect as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obliga-
tion or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding
before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued
by reason of the passage of this Act.

Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this Act
of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby
be divested or impaired.

Sec 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.

Approved, April 28, 1904.

xiv

BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION

Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910, December 13, 1912,
December 10, 1937, December 15, 1939, December 13, 1940, and December 18, 1942

Article I

THE TRUSTEES

1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members, with power to
increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven members. The Trustees
shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term.

2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meetings of the
Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee.

3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such.

4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees by ballot.
Sixty days prior to an annual or a special meeting of the Board, the President shall
notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled and each Trustee may sub-
mit nominations for such vacancies. A list of the persons so nominated, with the
names of the proposers, shall be mailed to the Trustees thirty days before the meet-
ing, and no other nominations shall be received at the meeting except with the
unanimous consent of the Trustees present. Vacancies shall be filled from the
persons thus nominated, but no person shall be declared elected unless he receives
the votes of two-thirds of the Trustees present.

Article II

MEETINGS

1. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City of
Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the first Friday following the second
Thursday of December in each year unless the date and place of meeting are other-
wise ordered by the Executive Committee.

2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Committee by
notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each Trustee twenty
days prior to the meeting.

3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the Chairman
upon the written request of seven members of the Board.

Article III

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD

1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-Chairman,
and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the members of the
Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All vacancies shall be filled by
the Board for the unexpired term; provided, however, that the Executive Com-
mittee shall have power to fill a vacancy in the office of Secretary to serve until
the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.

2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual powers
of a presiding officer.

2 xv

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall perform
his duties.

4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its transactions,
and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the Board and to his duties.

Article IV

EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION

The President

1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold office
during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive officer of the
Institution. The President, subject to the control of the Board and the Executive
Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of administration and super-
vision of all arrangements for research and other work undertaken by the Institu-
tion or with its funds. He shall devote his entire time to the affairs of the Insti-
tution. He shall prepare and submit to the Board of Trustees and to the Executive
Committee plans and suggestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its
general correspondence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with
the special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommendations in
each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and requests for
grants shall be referred to the President for consideration and report. He shall have
power to remove and appoint subordinate employees and shall be ex officio a
member of the Executive Committee.

2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the Institution
whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall sign and execute on behalf
of the corporation all contracts and instruments necessary in authorized adminis-
trative and research matters and affix the corporate seal thereto when necessary,
and may delegate the performance of such acts and other administrative duties in
his absence to the Executive Officer. He may execute all other contracts, deeds,
and instruments on behalf of the corporation and affix the seal thereto when ex-
pressly authorized by the Board of Trustees or Executive Committee. He may, within
the limits of his own authorization, delegate to the Executive Officer authority to
act as custodian of and affix the corporate seal. He shall be responsible for the
expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the Institution in accordance with
the directions of the Board and of the Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate
accounts of all receipts and disbursements. He shall submit to the Board of Trustees
at least one month before its annual meeting in December a written report of the
operations and business of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year with his
recommendations for work and appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year, which
shall be forthwith transmitted to each member of the Board.

3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.

4. There shall be an officer designated Executive Officer who shall be appointed by
and hold office at the pleasure of the President, subject to the approval of the Execu-
tive Committee. His duties shall be to assist and act for the President as the latter
may duly authorize and direct.

xvi

BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION

5. The President shall retire from office at the end of the calendar year in which
he becomes sixty-five years of age.

Article V

COMMITTEES

1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz. an Executive Committee,
a Finance Committee, and an Auditing Committee.

2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary of the
Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex officio and, in addition,
five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of three years, who
shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill a vacancy shall serve
for the remainder of his predecessor's term: Provided, however, that of the Execu-
tive Committee first elected after the adoption of these by-laws two shall serve for
one year, two shall serve for two years, and one shall serve for three years; and such
Committee shall determine their respective terms by lot.

3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and has
not given specific directions, have general control of the administration of the affairs
of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements for administration,
research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by the Institution; shall ap-
point advisory committees for specific duties; shall determine all payments and
salaries; and keep a written record of all transactions and expenditures and submit
the same to the Board of Trustees at each meeting, and it shall also submit to the
Board of Trustees a printed or typewritten report of each of its meetings, and at
the annual meeting shall submit to the Board a report for publication. The Execu-
tive Committee shall have power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or
transfer of real estate.

4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all ap-
propriations made by the Board.

5. The Finance Committee shall consist of five members to be elected by the
Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.

6. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the corporation
and general charge of its investments and invested funds, and shall care for and
dispose of the same subject to the directions of the Board of Trustees. It shall have
power to authorize the purchase, sale, exchange, or transfer of securities and to
delegate this power. It shall consider and recommend to the Board from time to
time such measures as in its opinion will promote the financial interests of the
Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board.

7. The Auditing Committee shall consist of three members to be elected by the
Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.

8. The Auditing Committee shall, before each annual meeting of the Board of
Trustees, examine the accounts of business transacted under the Finance Committee
and the Executive Committee. They may avail themselves at will of the services
and examination of the Auditor appointed by the Board of Trustees. They shall
report to the Board upon the collection of moneys to which the Institution is entitled,
upon the investment and reinvestment of principal, upon the conformity of expen-

xvii

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

ditures to appropriations, and upon the system of bookkeeping, the sufficiency of
the accounts, and the safety and economy of the business methods and safeguards
employed.

9. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the Finance Committee
shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. In case of vacancy in
the Finance Committee or the Auditing Committee, upon request of the remain-
ing members of such committee, the Executive Committee may fill such vacancy
by appointment until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.

10. The terms of all officers and of all members of committees shall continue until
their successors are elected or appointed.

Article VI

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

i. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of a previ-
ous appropriation by the Board of Trustees, or as provided in Article V, paragraph
6, hereof.

2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of November
in each year.

3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual meeting in
each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be audited by a skilled ac-
countant, to be appointed by the Board of Trustees, and shall submit to the annual
meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution
and a detailed estimate of the expenditures of the succeeding year.

4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall make general
appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained herein shall pre-
vent the Board of Trustees from making special appropriations at any meeting.

5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property, and funds invested
and to be invested, shall be deposited in such safe depository or in the custody of
such trust company and under such safeguards as the Trustees and Finance Com-
mittee shall designate; and the income available for expenditure of the Institution
shall be deposited in such banks or depositories as may from time to time be desig-
nated by the Executive Committee.

6. Any trust company entrusted with the custody of securities by the Finance
Committee may, by resolution of the Board of Trustees, be made Fiscal Agent of
the Institution, upon an agreed compensation, for the transaction of the business
coming within the authority of the Finance Committee.

Article VII

AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS

I. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the Board
of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided written notice
of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally upon, or mailed to
the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty days prior to the meeting.

xviii

ABSTRACT OF MINUTES OF THE FORTY-FIFTH MEETING OF

THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES

The meeting was held in New York, N. Y., in the Board Room of the Carnegie
Corporation of New York, on Tuesday, December 7, 1943. It was called to order
at 11:00 a. m. by the Chairman, Mr. Forbes.

Upon roll call, the following Trustees responded : Thomas Barbour, James F. Bell,
Robert Woods Bliss, Lindsay Bradford, Frederic A. Delano, Homer L. Ferguson,
W. Cameron Forbes, Walter S. Gifford, Herbert Hoover, Frank B. Jewett, Roswell
Miller, Henning W. Prentis, Jr., Elihu Root, Jr., Henry R. Shepley, Richard P. Strong,
Charles P. Taft, James W. Wadsworth, Frederic C. Walcott, and Lewis H. Weed.
The President of the Institution, Dr. Vannevar Bush, was also in attendance.

The minutes of the forty-fourth meeting were approved as printed and submitted
to the members of the Board.

Reports of the President, the Executive Committee, the Auditor, the Finance
Committee, the Auditing Committee, and of Chairmen of Divisions, Directors of
Departments, and Research Associates of the Institution were presented and
considered.

The following appropriations for the year 1944 were authorized:

Pension Fund $ 60,000

Administration (including expenses of Investment Office and of Insurance) .... 130,780

Publications (expenses of Office of Publications and Public Relations) 23,060

Departmental Research Operations 927,339

$1,141,179

Dr. Jewett submitted his resignation as a member of the Finance Committee.
This resignation was accepted with regret, and Mr. Prentis was duly elected to fill
the existing vacancy, which terminates in 1944.

The meeting adjourned at 12:35 p - M -> whereupon members journeyed to luncheon,
upon invitation of Mrs. Carnegie, at her home.

XIX

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
For the Year Ending October 31, 1943

To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington:

Gentlemen : Article V, section 3 of the By-Laws provides that the Executive Com-
mittee shall submit, at the annual meeting of the Board of Trustees, a report for
publication; and Article VI, section 3 provides that the Executive Committee shall
also submit, at the same time, a full statement of the finances and work of the Insti-
tution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. In accord-
ance with these provisions, the Executive Committee herewith respectfully submits
its report for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1943.

During this year the Executive Committee held six meetings, printed reports of
which have been mailed to each Trustee and constitute a part of this report.

A statement of activities of the Institution is contained in the report of the Presi-
dent, which has been considered and approved by the Executive Committee, and is
submitted herewith. Continued extension of use of resources and facilities of the
Institution for war research by the government is a gratifying response to the offer
by the Trustees of such services in the national interest. The Institution's contribution
to the war effort provides a unique record of accomplishment within its own field of
activity. The detailed estimate of expenditures for the succeeding year contained in
the report of the President has been considered by the Executive Committee, which
has approved the recommendations of the President in respect thereto and has pro-
visionally approved the budget estimates based thereon and submitted therewith.
Close attention has been given both by the Executive Committee and by the Finance
Committee to the question of availability of funds for Institution activities in 1944,
and budget recommendations are based upon the judgment of these Committees with
respect to financial policy during the present national emergency.

The Board of Trustees, at its meeting of December 18, 1942, appointed Arthur
Young and Company to audit the accounts of the Institution for the fiscal year
ending October 31, 1943. The report of the Auditor, including a balance sheet show-
ing assets and liabilities of the Institution on October 31, 1943, is submitted as a part
of the report of the Executive Committee.

In addition to the report of the Auditor there is also submitted a financial statement
for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1943, showing funds available for expenditures
and amounts allotted by the Executive Committee, a customary statement of receipts
and disbursements since the organization of the Institution on January 28, 1902, and a
schedule of real estate and equipment at original cost. These statements together
with the tables in the Auditor's report comprise a full statement of the finances of
the Institution.

xxi

There are no vacancies in the membership of the Board of Trustees, of the Execu-
tive Committee, of the Finance Committee, or of the Auditing Committee.

W. Cameron Forbes, Chairman
Vannevar Bush
Frederic A. Delano
Walter S. Gifford
Walter A. Jessup
Henry R. Shepley
Frederic C. Walcott
Lewis H. Weed
November i, 1943

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XXIV

Real Estate and Equipment, Original Cost

Administration (October 31, 1943)
Washington, D. C.

Building, site, and equipment $849,254.45

Division of Plant Biology (September 30, 1943)
Stanford University, California (Headquarters)

Buildings and grounds $74,423.46

Laboratory 39,799.05

Library 25,862.02

Operating equipment 13,901.82 153,986.35

Department of Embryology (September 30, 1943)
Wolfe and Madison Streets, Baltimore, Maryland

Library $4,228.96

Laboratory 18,569.82

Administration 7,754.37 30,553.15

Department of Genetics (September 30, 1943)
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York

Buildings, grounds, and field $289,989.35

Operating equipment 33,600.13

Laboratory apparatus 37,058.74

Library - 52,202.41

Archives 45,488.90 458,339.53

Geophysical Laboratory (September 30, 1943)
2801 Upton Street N.W., Washington, D. C.

Building, library, and operating appliances $291,353.68

Laboratory apparatus 171,304.96

Shop equipment 21,103.00 483,761.64

Division of Historical Research (September 30, 1943)
10 Frisbie Place, Cambridge, Massachusetts

Operating equipment $32,233.08

Library 13,685.60 45,918.68

Nutrition Laboratory (September 30, 1943)
29 Blackfan Street, Boston, Massachusetts

Building, office, shop, and library $134,399.59

Laboratory apparatus 32,611.21 167,010.80

Mount Wilson Observatory (September 30, 1943)
Pasadena, California

Buildings and grounds $222,458.33

Shop equipment 47,562.91

Instruments 684,986.05

Furniture and operating appliances 148,222.48

Hooker 100-inch reflector 638,519.81 1,741,749.58

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (September 30, 1943) f

5241 Broad Branch Road N.W., Washington, D. C.

Building, site, and office $254,594.80

Survey equipment 93,387.31

Instruments, laboratory, and shop equipment 465,482.87 813,464.98

$4,744,039.16

XXV

REPORT OF AUDITORS

To the Board of Trustees
Carnegie Institution of Washington
Washington, D. C.

We have made an examination of the books and accounts of Carnegie Institution
of Washington for the year ended October 31, 1943.

Income from investments and other sources has been duly accounted for and all
disbursements were evidenced by paid voucher checks and/or properly approved
invoices. The cash and securities were verified by certificates received from deposi-
tories and custodians. As in past years, the detailed accounts of the Departments of
Research in the field have been audited by the Bursar of the Institution, and we are
of the opinion, as a result of reviewing the internal audit methods in force, that such
internal audit is satisfactorily conducted.

The securities are stated at cost, amortized cost, or value at date acquired, this
being the established custom of the Institution. In accordance with a recommenda-
tion made in February 1940 by the Institution's Finance Committee, all premiums
on all obligations purchased subsequent to January 1, 1940 are being amortized on
a straight-line basis to the date on which an obligation is first callable or payable at
par. The amortization of the premiums applicable to the year ended October 31, 1943
amounted to $19,702.85 and has been deducted from the cost of such obligations.

Real estate and equipment are stated at original cost and books on hand for sale
at their sales prices. No provision has been made for depreciation of property owned
by the Institution.

We inspected certified copies of the minutes of the meetings of the Board of
Trustees and Executive Committee as authority for the appropriations and allotments
made during the year.

In our opinion, on the basis of valuations stated above, the accompanying balance
sheet, statement of receipts and disbursements, and detailed schedule of securities
properly present the financial position of Carnegie Institution of Washington at
October 31, 1943 and the transactions for the year ended that date.

Arthur Young & Company
Accountants and Auditors
New Yor\, N. Y.
November 24, 1943

XXVI

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xxvin

Schedule of Securities

Aggregate

par or

nominal value

$300,000

120,000

460,000

575,000

304,000

312,000

200,000

800,000

1,239,000

300,000

350,000

75,000

1,200,000

400,000

50,000

100,000

$6,885,000

$90,000

100,000

57,000

35,000

91,000

100,000

150,000

100,000

250,000

100,000

$1,273,000

$275

247

100

200

150

100

200

100

141

125

300

149

300

195

120

263

225

,000
,000
,000
,900
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,500
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,000
,500
,000
,000
,000

Description

United States Government Bonds

U. S.
U. S.
U. S.

u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.
u. s.

Guar. Federal Farm Mtg. Corp. 3s

Guar. Reconstruction Finance Corp. Notes, Is.

of America Treasury Notes 1 }4s

of America Treasury 2s

of America Treasury 2 J^s

of America Treasury 2 }4s

of America Treasury 2 l /iS

of America Treasury 2 yis

of America Treasury 2 l As

of America Savings Defense "G" 2 ]4s

of America Savings Defense "G" 2 l As

of America Savings Defense "G" 2 }4s

Total U. S. Government.

Foreign Bonds

Canadian National Ry. Co. 4^s Guar

Canadian National Ry. Co. 5s Guar

Canadian Pacific Ry. Co. Coll. Tr. 5s

Province of Alberta Deb. 4 yis

Province of Alberta Deb. 5s

Province of Manitoba Deb. 4>^s

Province of Nova Scotia Deb. 4 Ks

Shawinigan Water and Power Co. 1st Mtg. & Coll. Tr. S. F. 4Ks.
City of Toronto Cons. Loan Deb. 5s

Total Foreign.

Public Utility Bonds

Arkansas Power & Light Co. 1st & Ref. Mtg. 5s

Blackstone Valley Gas & Electric Co. Mtg. & Coll. Tr. 4s.
Columbus & Southern Ohio Electric Co. 1st Mtg. 3>^s. . . .

Commonwealth Edison Co. Conv. Deb. 3 }4s

Commonwealth Edison Co. 1st Mtg. 3 }4s

Consolidated Edison Co. of N. Y. Deb. 3 }4s

Consolidated Edison Co. of N. Y. Deb. 3 y 2 s \

Detroit Edison Co. Gen. & Ref. Mtg. 4s

Gulf States Util. Co. 1st Mtg. & Ref. 3 y 2 s

Houston Lighting & Power Co. 1st Mtg. 3 }4s

Illinois Power & Light Corp. 1st & Ref. Mtg. 5s

Louisiana Power & Light Co., 1st Mtg. 5s

Metropolitan Edison Co. 1st Mtg. 4Ks

Minnesota Power & Light Co. 1st & Ref. Mtg. 4^s

Monongahela West Penn Pub. Serv. Co. 1st Mtg. 4^s. . . .

Montana Power Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 3 Ks

New Orleans Public Service Co. 1st & Ref. Mtg. 5s

New York & Westchester Lighting Co. Deb. 5s

Northern States Power Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 3^s

Ohio Edison Co. 1st Mtg. 4s

Ohio Power Co. 1st Mtg. 3 %s

Ohio Public Service Co., 1st Mtg. 4s

Oklahoma Gas & Electric Co., 1st Mtg. 3 Ks

Oklahoma Natural Gas Co., 1st Mtg. 3 Hs

Pacific Gas & Electric Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 3 ^s

Pacific Gas & Electric Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 4s

Public Service Co., of No. 111., 1st Mtg. 3Ks

Puget Sound Power & Light Co., 1st Mtg. 4Ks

Southern California Edison Co., Ltd. 1st & Ref. Mtg. 3s. .
Southern Natural Gas Co., 1st Mtg. Pipe Line, S. F. 3%s.

Texas Electric Service Co., 1st Mtg. 5s

Texas Power & Light Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 5s

Toledo Edison Co., 1st Mtg. 3 }4s

Virginia Electric & Power Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 3Ks

Wisconsin Electric Power Co., 1st Mtg. 3 yis ,

Ma-
turity

1949-44

1944

1946

1950-48

1951-49

1952-50

1955-52

1954-52

1958-56

1967-62

1968-63

1969-64

1953

1954

1955

1951
1957
1969
1969
1970
1954
1958
1950
1958
1952
1967
1949

1956
1965
1970
1958
1968
1948
1958
1965
1969
1966
1956
1957
1968
1978
1960
1966
1955
1954
1967
1967
1968
1962
1966
1955
1961
1964
1968
1972
1965
1956
1960
1956
1968
1968
1968

Cost, amortized

cost, or

value at date

acquired

$303

120

461

578

304

312

200

800

1,244

300

350

1,200

400

100

,070.31*

,000.00

,621.18*

,275.14*

, 000 . 00

,000.00

,804.57*

,000.00

, 000 . 00

,000.00

,898,771.20

$90,292.74*

112,000.00

98,500.00

62,138.88*

38,002.04*

90,835.11

93,750.00

101,150.00

142,886.77

100,312.50

238,510.42

96,164.59

il, 264, 543. 05

$267

264

103

213

196

154

100

101

102

205

104

102

104

145

130

313

152

292

200

121

272

232

,953.12

,875.00

,639.52*

,910.75

,712.87

,875.00

,730.00

, 500 . 00

,750.00

,900.00

,786.25

,156.25

, 000 . 00

,970.00

, 200 . 00

,052.50

, 500 . 00

,266.25

, 500 . 00

,625.00

,000.00

,507.80

, 500 . 00

,000.00

, 230 . 00

,280.50*

,362.80*

,771.25*

, 700 . 00

,528.02

, 800 . 00

, 205 . 00

,875.00

$4,633,900

Total Public Utility.

:, 738,912. 88

*After deduction for amortization of premiums on bonds purchased subsequent to January 1, 1940. Amortization
is on a straight-line basis to the date on which bonds are first callable or payable at par.

XXIX

Schedule of Securities — Continued

Aggregate

par or

nominal value

Description

Ma-
turity

Cost, amortized

cost, or

value at date

acquired

$280,000
51,000
314,000
25,000
52,000
75,000

Communication Bonds

American Telephone & Telegraph Co., Conv. Deb. 3s. . .

American Telephone & Telegraph Co., Deb. 3 *4s

American Telephone & Telegraph Co., Deb. 3^s

Mountain States Telephone & Telegraph Co., Deb. 3}is.
New England Telephone & Telegraph Co., 1st Mtg. 5s. .
Southern Bell Telephone & Telegraph Co., Deb. 3 ><s. . .

1956
1961
1966
1968
1952
1962

$305,185.26*
51,510.00
326,706.75
25,500.00
51,748.00
72,375.00

$797,000

Total Communications.

$833,025.01

$44,000
82,000

Railroad Equipment Trusts

Illinois Central R. R. Co., 4^s

Pennsylvania R. R. Co. 2 Hs Guar.

1944
1956

$42,155.21
81,283.64

$126,000

Total Railroad Equipment Trusts .

$123,438.85

$50,000
100,000

75,000

50,000
100,000
150,000

50,000

75,000
100,000

50,000
100,000

69,000
100,000
200,000
2,084,000
100,000
100,000

50,000

Railroad Bonds

Central Pacific Ry. Co., 1st Ref. Mtg. 4s Guar

Chesapeake & Ohio Ry. Co., Gen. Mtg. 4>£s

Chicago & W. Indiana R. R. Co., Cons. 4s

Great Northern Ry. Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 4K"s Std

Great Northern Ry. Co., Gen. Mtg. 5s

Louisville & Nashville R. R. Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 4>£s

Oregon Short Line R. R. Co., Cons. 1st Mtg. 5s

Pennsylvania R. R. Co., Gen. Mtg. 4>^s

Pennsylvania R. R. Co., Cons. Mtg. 4*4s

Pittsburgh, Cin. Chi. & St. L. R. R. Co., Gen. Mtg. 5s Guar..

Southern Rwy. Co., 1st Cons. Mtg. 5s

Terminal R. R. Assn. of St. Louis S. F. Gen. Ref. Mtg. 4s

Toledo & Ohio Central Ry. Co., Ref. & Imp. Mtg. 3^s Guar.

Union Pacific R. R. Co., 1st Mtg. R. R. & Land Grant 4s

Union R. R. Co., Deb. 6s Guar

Virginian Ry. Co., 1st Lien & Ref. Mtg. 3 }is

West Shore R. R. Co., 1st Mtg. 4s Guar

Western Maryland Ry. Co., 1st & Ref. Mtg. 5^s

1949
1992
1952
1961
1973
2003
1946
1965
1960
1975
1994
1953
1960
1947
1946
1966
2361
1977

99
70
50

104

149
48
75

104
51

103
62
99

215
2,084

102
78
42

,250.00

,464.29

,357.66

,113.59

,385.84

,475.00

,405.15

,918.75

,662.50

,898.98

,580.34

,695.29

,000.00

,154.08*

,000.00

,250.00

,140.00

,677.19

$3,603,000

Total Railroad.

$3,590,428.66

$21,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

3,000

113,000

98,000

95,500

54,000

400,000

295,000

75,000

150,000

200,000

230,000

122,000

Industrial and Miscellaneous Bonds

Allis-Chalmers Mfg. Co., Conv. S. F. Deb. 4s

Atlantic Refining Co., Deb. 3s

Bethlehem Steel Corp. Conv. S. F. Deb. 3 y 2 s

Empire Gas and Fuel Co., S. F. Deb. 3 }4s

Phelps Dodge Corp. Conv. Deb. 3 Ks

Railway Express Agency, Serial Notes 1 ^s-2 >£s ,

Republic Steel Corp. Gen. Mtg. 4>£s

Republic Steel Corp. Gen. Mtg. 4jis

Scovill Manufacturing Co., Deb. 3 }is

Shell Union Oil Corp., Deb. 2 y 2 s

Socony- Vacuum Oil Co., S. F. Deb. 2 Vss

Socony- Vacuum Oil Co., Deb. 3s

Standard Oil Co. of Calif. Deb. 2 Ks

Standard Oil Co., of N. J. Deb. 2 Hs

Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co., Deb. 2}is. . . .
West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co., 1st Mtg. 3s. . .

1952
1953
1952
1962
1952
1943-48
1956
1961
1950
1954
1955
1964
1966
1953
1951
1954

$21,666.54
103,130.64*
148,750.00
185,687.50
3,000.00
113,000.00
101,579.05*
98,520.09*
54,720.00*
384,176.25
306,751.80*

78,000.00
153,437.50*
203,459.45*
232,874.99*
120,780.00

$2,306,500

Total Industrial and Miscellaneous .

,309,533.81

$100,000
80,000

90,000
91,750

Mortgages

Lawyers Mtg. Co., Guaranteed 1st Mtg. Ctfs. ± l A%. No. 29940T. . .
Lawyers Title and Guaranty Co., Guar. Mtg. 5}4% Par. Ctfs.

No. D 424421381

N. Y. Title and Mtg. Co., Guaranteed 1st Mtg. Ctfs., 5 yi%. No. N97,
N. Y. Title and Mtg. Co., Guaranteed 1st Mtg. Ctfs., 4}4%. No. N86.

1940

1935
1938
1948

$96,400.41

79,686.80
88,701.51
90,745.92

$361,750

Total Mortgages.

$355,534.64

$19,986,150

Bonds and Mortgages — Funds Invested

$20,114,188.10

XXX

Schedule of Securities — Continued

Number of
shares

Description

Cost, amortized

cost, or

value at date

acquired

100

2,257

1,500

500

600

1,000

1,125

1,500

225

530

5,000

1,000

550

600

1,144

1,000

400

3,100

Preferred Stocks

American Brake Shoe Co., 5)4% Cum. Pref

American Cyanamid Co., 5% Cum. Pref

Appalachian Electric Power Co., 4}4% Cum. Pref

Bethlehem Steel Corp. 7% Cum. Pref

Case (J. I.) Co., 7% Cum. Pref

Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co., $4.50 Cum. Pref

Deere & Company, 7 % Cum. Pref

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co., $4.50 Cum. Pref

General Motors Corp. $5.00 Cum. Pref

Grant (W. T.) Co., 5 % Cum. Pref

Johns-Manville Corp. 7 % Cum. Pref

Kress (S. H.) Co., 6% Cum. Spl. Pref

New York State Electric & Gas Corp. 5.10% Cum. Pref..

Northern States Power Co., $5.00 Cum. Pref

Ohio Power Co., 4K% Cum. Pref

Oklahoma Natural Gas Co., $5.50 Cum. Conv. Prior Pref

Pacific Telephone and Telegraph Co., 6% Cum. Pref

Public Service Co., of Oklahoma 5% Cum. Pref

Sherwin-Williams Co., 5% Cum. Pref

Standard Oil Co. of Ohio 5% Cum. Pref

U. S. Rubber Co., 8% Non Cum. 1st Pref

U. S. Steel Corp., 7% Cum. Pref

Total Preferred Stocks

$12,653.50

25,280.87

159,000.00

183,637.50

62,225.00

68,112.25

28,812.50

116,125.00

187,937.50

7,642.76

67,294.52

58,269.00

103,250.00

103,000.00

59,925.00

62,142.51

93,495.75

60,900.00

126,088.12

109,385.47

46,527.50

443,407.57

25,781

$2,185,112.32

1,800
2,000
2,000
3,300
4,000

200
2,600
3,000
3,200
1,800
2,300

200
3,900

500
2,408
6,000

980
2,100
1,900

100
10,900
3,600
8,800
2,500
4,900

600
7,100
1,600
4,300
1,800

908

800
5,000

662.67
1,100
3,000
2,100
6,300
1,500
1,260
5,100
2,200
2,600
3,200
1,400
2,900
1,600
1,200
2,500
1,600
3,700
5,600

Common Stocks

Air Reduction Company

American Brake Shoe Co

American Can Company

American Cyanamid Co. "B"

American Radiator & Standard Sanitary Corp

American Telephone & Telegraph Co

Caterpillar Tractor Co

Chase National Bank of N. Y

Chrysler Corporation

Commercial Credit Co

Commercial Investment Trust Corp

Commercial National Bank and Trust Co. of N. Y

Continental Can Co

Continental Illinois National Bank & Trust Co. of Chicago.

Continental Insurance Co

Continental Oil Co. of Delaware

Dow Chemical Co

E. I. duPont de Nemours & Co

Eastman Kodak Co

First National Bank of N. Y

General Electric Co

General Foods Corporation

General Motors Corporation

Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co

Grant (W. T.) Co

Guaranty Trust Co. of N. Y

Gulf Oil Corp

Hartford Fire Insurance Co

Humble Oil & Refining Co

Insurance Company of North America

International Business Machines Corp

Johns-Manville Corp

Kresge (S. S.) Company ,

Lawyers Mortgage Corp., Voting Trust Ctf

Liggett & Myers Tobacco Co. "B"

Merck & Co. Inc

Monsanto Chemical Co

Montgomery Ward & Co

National Cash Register Co

National Fire Insurance Co. of Hartford

National Lead Co

Newberry (J. J.) Co

New Jersey Zinc Co

Owens-Illinois Glass Co

Parke, Davis & Co

Penney (J. C.) Co

Phillips Petroleum Co ,

Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co

Procter & Gamble Co

Scott Paper Co

Sears, Roebuck & Co

Sharp & Dohme, Inc

(Continued on following page)

$107

178

175

286

125

160

162

117

329

302

152

426

145

451

161

284

134

257

128

117

114

110
122
204
302

74
108
104
172
197

51
264

79
131
138

65
287

905.16
580.95
587.43
812.55
114.91
007 . 50
811.00
025.00
011.32
018.00
904.94
380.00
404.55
425.00
913.30
943.08
622.28
363.35
933 . 75
840.00
469.09
855.17
720.90
083 . 83
259.93
651.50
515.31
734.68
024.26
164.15
182.04
687.15
950 . 90

625.00
980.85
625.50
892.84
402.86
842.50
585.50
039 . 50
294.50
239.00
675.46
135.69
309.79
399.75
903.14
750.98
682.41
972.65

XXXI

Schedule of Securities — Continued

Number of
shares

Description

Cost,«amortized

cost, or

value at date

acquired

1,500
11,700
1,500
4,000
6,200
4,000
2,300
3,100
3,800
2,400
1,400
3,300
2,000

Common Stocks — Continued

Sherwin-Williams Co

Socony- Vacuum Oil Co

Squibb (E. R.) & Sons

Standard Oil Co., of California

Standard Oil Co. of Indiana

Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey

Texas Company

Timken Roller Bearing Co

Union Carbide & Carbon Corp

United Fruit Company ,

United States Gypsum Co

Westinghouse Electric & Mfg. Co

Woolworth (F. W.) Co

Total Common Stocks

Common and Preferred Stocks — Funds Invested

Aggregate Investments (Bonds and Stocks) . . .

$147
142

86
127
181
215

96
148
321
171
132
346

,079.47
,824.05
,250.00
,044.00
,751.70
,173.50
,823.98
,831.25
,683.50
,224.48
,882.32
,049.63
,770.85

193,818.67

$10,003,649.63

219,599.67

$12,188,761.95

$32,302,950.05

XXX11

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT

OF THE

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

FOR THE YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1943

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT

OF THE

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

As provided in the By-Laws of the In- suits are proving of direct service in the

stitution, the President has the honor to war effort.

report to the Board of Trustees on the The Institution has loaned the services

condition of the Institution and on its pro- of 40 members of its staff to engage in

grams of research. war work in other organizations, some of

The report for this year will be brief, whom continue on our salary rolls while
for the efforts of the scientific staff are now on leave of absence. Others derive their
so largely devoted to war research that salaries from their temporary associations,
regular programs have been severely cur- and in such cases, by action of the Execu-
tailed. The total research effort of the tive Committee, it is the general policy
Institution is increased; in fact, measured of the Institution to pay the difference
in rate of expenditure, it is over twice as between total government compensation
large as in the years just prior to the war. and 80 per cent of the member's stated
Results of value are indeed being attained, salary, and to pay premiums on annuity
but they are nearly all of a confidential and collective insurance policies,
nature, reported currently to the armed The Geophysical Laboratory is now corn-
services, but not publicly. In due time pletely devoted to a war program, for
many of these results will be reported which the nature of its facilities and staff
in histories of the scientific aspects of the is specially fitted. The Department of
war, but some, and indeed the most in- Terrestrial Magnetism is similarly occu-
teresting, will undoubtedly not be made pied, with very little of its regular pro-
generally known for many years. gram continuing. In this case also, the

The conditions under which this large unique position and background of the

volume of research for government is car- department has now become decidedly

ried on remain substantially unaltered, useful in an important program which

The Institution donates the use of its utilizes much of the talent normally pres-

regular facilities and the services of its ent. Mount Wilson Observatory is not

scientific staff. It is reimbursed, under its so fully converted to war research, but

contracts with the War and Navy depart- has several important programs under

ments, and with the Office of Scientific way which utilize the special knowledge

Research and Development, only for its of astronomers and physicists. The war

added expenses incident to the programs, effort continues to need more outstanding

A total of 62 contracts, on 26 separate talent in the physical sciences than is

projects, have now been entered into, in- available, and to utilize to a lesser extent

volving a total expenditure through the men from the biological sciences. There

Institution of government funds aggregat- are, however, war research programs in

ing $2,500,000. Many of these contracts most departments, and all have loaned

have been completed, with indication on numerous staff members. In addition to

the part of the government that the re- direct effort in cooperation with govern-

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

ment on problems in agricultural, medical,
botanical, and chemical fields, a number
of researches are being pursued on Insti-
tution initiative and funds, which may
later prove to have importance in connec-
tion with the prosecution of the war, or
the post-war period. The Division of His-
torical Research has no war program of
its own, although several members of its
staff are on leave in various connections.

The administration building in Wash-
ington is full to overflowing. The Office
of Scientific Research and Development
makes its headquarters there, with the
result that it is the focus of scientific
research on weapons and on military
medical problems.

Though it is not appropriate to spread
before the Board of Trustees the details
of the war research being carried on by
the Institution, much of it is known to
members of the Board by reason of their
individual connections. Practically all
members of the Board are active in some
phase of the war effort, and the duties of
several bring them into contact with scien-
tific war research generally, and with the
efforts of the Institution in particular. The
Chairman of the Board has of course been
consulted frequently in connection with
the many problems of management which
arise in relations with government; and
the Vice-Chairman, even though burdened
with many duties because of the war, has
aided in solving several knotty problems.
It is a pleasure to record that Mr. Delano,
Secretary of the Board of Trustees, has
now occupied an office in the administra-
tion building, where his generous counsel
on the affairs of the Institution will be
even more available than in the past.
Dr. Jewett, as President of the National
Academy of Sciences, comes into intimate
contact with a wide range of war re-
search, and, as a member of the National

Defense Research Committee, one branch
of the Office of Scientific Research and
Development, aids in formulating and
guiding a large program of research on
weapons, a part of which is carried on in
Institution laboratories. The Committee
on Medical Research, which forms the
other main branch of the Office of Scientific
Research and Development, depends for
its professional advice upon the com-
mittees of the Division of Medical Sciences
of the National Research Council. Dr.
Weed is Chairman of this Division, and
hence closely in touch with all medical
research in the country, and in particular
with the relatively small contribution
which the Institution makes in this field.
Colonel Strong, in his relations with the
medical affairs of the War Department,
also makes frequent contact with the broad
program of medical research. Dr. Loomis
is Chairman of one of the divisions of the
National Defense Research Committee,
and also a member of the important Scien-
tific Advisory Council in the Navy De-
partment. Lieut. Commander Miller and
Lieut. Commander Morgan, through their
official duties, see the results of certain
parts of the Institution's programs of war
research. Mr. Root has advised on many
matters; notably, he has aided Dr. Rich-
ards, the Chairman of the Committee on
Medical Research, in connection with the
research on penicillin, which promises to
be the outstanding medical product of the
war. Senator Walcott, in addition to his
work on conservation, is a consultant to a
division of the National Defense Research
Committee, of which Dr. Leason H.
Adams is Chairman. Other members of
the Board, in their varied activities in
connection with the prosecution of the
war, have had occasional contact with the
war effort of the Institution.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1943

Finances

The income of the Institution continues
to decline, although the decrease since last
year is not large. Estimated income for
the present year will probably be realized,
and in fact somewhat exceeded. Thus
the deficit, which was anticipated in the
current budget, will probably be small.
The budget for the coming year again
includes an estimated small deficit, to be
charged against reserves.

In budgeting, the full salaries of mem-
bers of the staff on leave have again been
included. The revertment of these salaries
at the end of the year, less any amount
which may be transferred for unusual ex-
penses in connection with war research
contracts, will undoubtedly more than
cover the estimated deficit. Yet it is logical
to budget in this manner, for we need to
know the position of the Institution as
it will be when absent members return.
Currently, on this basis, the income does
not quite meet costs. This has come about,
both because of decreased income from
endowment, and also because certain costs
of operation have inevitably risen.

The few and moderate increases of sal-
ary included in the current budget, neces-
sary to maintain the over-all salary scale
of the Institution on a substantially level
basis as older men retire, were put into
effect. Salary rate schedules, including
these increases, were prepared in accord-
ance with instructions from the Director
of the Office of Economic Stabilization,
and they have now been approved by the
National War Labor Board and by the
Bureau of Internal Revenue of the Treasury
Department. In the budget for next year
similar small increases, in accordance with
this schedule, have been included.

Some problems have arisen by reason
of the presence in our laboratories of tem-
porary employees, working alongside our

regular staff. Though the salaries of these
temporary workers have been established
entirely in accordance with such rules as
apply, and with the general policies and
customs pertaining to such work, there
is a difference in the compensation of the
two groups. This is natural, and in fact
equitable, since those on temporary duty
have added personal costs, and lack the
relative security of permanent positions.
There are, however, certain individual
instances which have warranted correc-
tion. In some of these, where men on our
permanent staff have been carrying greatly
increased burdens and responsibilities of a
temporary nature, the problem has been
met by added compensation, paid from a
special fund, and on a definitely temporary
basis.

Owing to the continuing absence of
General Dillon, on leave from his post as
Director of the Office of Publications, and
also because of general conditions, the
publication program of the Institution has
been much curtailed. Such publication as
still occurs requires small appropriations,
as there is still a balance in the publication
fund.

The program of field work of the Divi-
sion of Historical Research is now sus-
pended. Such members of the Division as
are not on leave are engaged in working
up the results of field work for publica-
tion. This does not, however, need to
result in added publication costs at once.

The annual payment from Carnegie
Corporation of New York continues to be
utilized to carry research programs of a
terminating nature. It had been planned
to utilize the balance of the fund for
improving relations with other research
organizations by grants to research work-
ers in fields adjacent to those of the Insti-
tution. Under present conditions there is

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

little opportunity along such lines which is for next year, to keep the estimated deficit

truly attractive, and hence there is an ac- small. As we now proceed, during the

cumulating balance in this fund. Since, present year and next year, our reserves

however, the grants from the Corporation will actually not be depleted, and they will

are now on a terminating basis, this in- i n f act increase somewhat, since we are

come should not be considered in con- not ma king full salary payments to absent

nection with current budgeting of con- members of the staff. Should we return

tinuing operations. to p eace ti m e conditions immediately, how-

The matter of taxes in the District of ever? we should be spe nding slightly more

Columbia is now definitely settled, as the tban our mcome

bill passed by Congress in this connection Jhe Finance Commktee has given much

exempts the Institution by name. ± h£ [Q ^ bkm ^ ^ situation

The cyclotron, at the Department or n-v t .v n

^ . i w • i i presents. The Institution will not soon

1 errestnal Magnetism, has now been com- , . , , . i • j j

i i T -ii i -i be in actual distress, unless indeed some

pleted. It will at the present time be neces- . . . n . , ., , ,

., , . r , form of inflation follows the war, or the
sary to provide only minor funds to oper- , . r ,
, . i c ' , . r l - general income from endowments con-
ate it. In spite or the scarcity or certain & . .

• i . • i • i . i .i tinues downward to a substantial extent,

essential materials, it was completed, rather

more slowly than had been anticipated, As matters now stand ' * c Instltutlon
because of the recommendation of the would be able to carr y on almost as "
Committee on Medical Research that it be but [t w( ^ uld not have that freedom whlch
placed in use in connection with certain ' lt has had in the P ast t0 seize u P on re '
medical research problems. Such use will search opportunities, and to lead the way
be taken care of largely by government in certain specific areas of scientific re-
funds, for it will be related definitely to search, for that freedom is present only
the war effort. when income is substantially more than
With all these points included, it has enough to care for the bare operations of
not been difficult, in preparing the budget regular departments.

Programs and Research Results

The reports of Directors concerning cess. Publication of a systematic classifica-

normal research programs are brief, and tion of embryonic stages, combined with

there are few opportunities this year to a catalogue of important human embryos

emphasize particular research accomplish- i n tne Department's collection, has been

ments for the especial attention of the begun. Programs of study of the effect

Board or Irustees. Q £ sex -gl a nd hormones on very early em-

In Dr. Corner's report of the work of bryos o£ the opossurri) and on thc f unc „

the Department of Embryology there is ^^ histology of ^ ovary? haye been

a statement on developmental horizons in . , c , , . , A v

, , i ■ i ■ -ii ci pushed forward during the year. A long

human embryos which is especially useful r . ... £ .

i -r • ji i • . • t j i . and comprehensive investigation or the

in clarifying the historical development r °

and present outlook of the research pro- development of reflexes, postures, and be-

gram of this department. Even under war havior patterns in the infant rhesus mon-

conditions the collection and study of early key, aided by the Department, was brought

human embryos has continued with sue- to final publication.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1943

Under the direction of Dr. Spoehr, the At Mount Wilson Observatory Dr.
Division of Plant Biology has investigated Adams and his staff still manage to con-
in a preliminary way a number of subjects tinue some astronomical research. At a
of potential importance in connection with time of minimum solar activity especial
the war effort or the post-war period, of interest attaches to the appearance of the
such nature that opportunities might be first sunspots of the new cycle, and a few
overlooked except for the attention of an such spots have now been observed, some
independent laboratory. Though none of of them at the highest solar latitudes ever
these have as yet yielded results which recorded. The remarkable reversal of sign
are striking or of great practical moment, of magnetic polarity characteristic of a new
there are some which hold such promise cycle has been fully confirmed. Advances
as fully to warrant intense preliminary in the efficiency of stellar spectrographs
exploration, and possibly early and con- have led to notable discoveries regarding
centrated effort to bring them to definite the structure of the expanding shells sur-
fruition. Among these may be mentioned rounding the novae of our galactic sys-
the breeding of new forage grasses of tern, and have aided in the interpretation
importance for food production, and the of these extraordinarily important objects,
determination of the products formed by Of exceptional interest is the discovery of a
diatoms and other algae under various en- shell around the nova in Auriga of 1891.
vironmental conditions. Excellent progress The powerful spectrographs in use with
has also been made in the normal pro- the 100-inch telescope have opened new
grams of biochemical investigation and fields in the analysis of stellar spectra, and
experimental taxonomy. in the study of differential motions in

The Department of Genetics, under Dr. stellar atmospheres and of the distribution

Demerec, has aided in the war effort in an d composition of the gaseous clouds of

cooperation with the Department of Agri- interstellar space.

culture, the National Institute of Health, The Department of Terrestrial Magnet-

and the Long Island Biological Associa- is m has almost entirely turned to war

tion, and by change of emphasis in some research, fortunately in such manner as to

of its normal programs, although the op- utilize to the full the services of a staff

portunities for war service are not as large outstanding in certain fields of earth phys-

in the biological field as in some other ics which now acquire a special signifi-

types of scientific research. Dr. Riddle is cance. Most of this is of military nature,

rounding out some of his research in endo- but there is still some which can be properly

crinology, especially in regard to the action made known. Dr. Fleming has summa-

of the parathyroid glands. Dr. MacDowell rized this in his report, and has also pre-

is studying an interesting mutation in mice, sented the broader aspects of one phase of

which aids in interpreting certain proc- the work in the eleventh Arthur lecture

esses of normal development. Dr. McClin- under the auspices of the Smithsonian

tock continues to learn more concerning Institution.

broken chromosomes in maize, by highly So completely is the Geophysical Labora-

ingenious methods. Dr. Demerec con- tory devoted to war research that its Direc-

tinues to find that artificially produced mu- tor, Dr. Adams, can report little beyond

tants in certain fungi throw light on the the preparation of earlier work for publi-

mechanism of mutation. cation. This is plainly the situation also

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

in the Nutrition Laboratory under Dr.
Carpenter.

Dr. Kidder reports the field work of the
Division of Historical Research suspended
for the duration. Staff members who are
not in government service will have op-
portunity in the meantime to prepare ade-
quate reports of their work. The present
Maya program of cooperative studies was
begun in 1929 and it has been planned to
follow the period of field studies with a
general summing up and submission of a

definitive report by 1950. After the war
it may be necessary to continue a number
of limited field investigations, but the
whole program of the Division is still
definitely pointed toward the objective
mentioned above. There is expectation,
therefore, that the present archaeological
and historical studies of the Maya will be
brought to a conclusion as contemplated,
and that there will then be opportunity
for careful consideration with regard to
inauguration of future programs.

Post- War Problems

It is not too early, certainly, to study their importance warrants, and this has

the broad problem of the status of scien- led to normal programs which are farther

tific research in this country after the war. from application than the programs of

In this, the Institution occupies a unique almost any other organization in the

position. It is the only fully independent country. They are not less important on

institution of national scope devoted to a that account, but their importance has to

wide range of' fundamental scientific re- be weighed in the vague terms of the

search. Its presence affects the whole pat- fundamental knowledge and understand-

tern of research in the United States in a ing of the race, rather than in terms of

decidedly favorable manner. It has great their possible impact upon the daily life

opportunities for creative work. of the people. There is some danger cer-

When this war is over, and even a partial tainly, after a demonstration on the pres-

account of the influence of scientific and ent scale of the importance of applied

technical research upon its progress be- science to the security of the country, that

comes generally known, there is no doubt the people generally, in their post-war in-

that the American people will see the need sistence upon a vigorous national scientific

for continuing sound scientific research effort, may be decidedly practical in their

in this country. Those who have been approach.

in a position to realize the position of Yet it is well to remember the long-
science in modern war already see the demonstrated idealism of the American
continuing need clearly. Yet the emphasis, people. If there is a post-war tendency to
from this restricted viewpoint, may well insist upon the strictly applied, it will not
be upon applied research, and upon the be in accordance with the general pattern
material aspects of science generally. The during the history of the country, and it
Institution has never devoted itself to ap- may hence be expected to be temporary,
plied science; it is for this reason that One need only consider the history of
much time and effort have been required American education, and particularly of
to adapt its research to war purposes, and the state universities, to recognize the gen-
that the adaptation is even now incomplete, eral background which controls. The
Rather, it has wisely pursued especially people of this country have, in general,
those branches of science which might insisted that many of these institutions be
otherwise not receive the attention which essentially independent, even when they

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1943

paid their costs directly in taxes. There It is important, however, from the stand-
have been many exceptions of course, but point of the Institution, to study the trends
the general trend remains. This has ex- carefully; for the forms of organization
tended to the handling of research of an and the nature of support may well alter
advanced nature. Research, of any sort, in in the years just ahead. It would be sur-
this country is a relatively recent growth, prising if incomes from present endow-
It has appeared in organizations of many ments could carry as large a share of the
types. But it is notable that some of the burden in the immediate future as in the
finest research in the country, and some immediate past. It also does not seem
of the most fundamental, has been car- probable that new and large independent
ried on in state universities, which are endowments will be soon created to such
directly dependent upon the public purse, an extent as to offer a solution.
The great body of the people are interested The private universities would of course
in matters of the spirit; they are interested be in difficulty should endowment incomes
in the extension of knowledge for its own decrease substantially. They have, how-
sake. Their interpreters often miss the ever, valuable assets in the interest and
point; there is a tendency, for example, to support of their alumni bodies. The extent
believe that a scientific subject is worth to which the alumni of American colleges
writing about popularly only if its results rally to their support is extraordinary. Not
in terms of more and cheaper gadgetry only do alumni of means thus aid their
for daily use can be demonstrated to the own institutions, but families that are far
reader. There is also a tendency at times from being affluent contribute generously
for legislatures to consider that their con- and often. There is a tendency in some
stituencies understand science only when quarters to be cynical about this type of
it promises to cure human ills or defeat the giving; but there has been a tendency in
insects that attack crops. Yet, if this were some quarters in the inter-war period to
truly the case, there would have been sniff at all simple and wholesome reactions
little truly great and fundamental science of the American people. This is one of
in this country, and that little would have the finest. It stems from the days when the
appeared only in the private institutions, town meeting voted of its painful income
Actually this country has forged ahead to support the country school. It forms a
until, in the years preceding the war, it great outlet for that altruistic urge which,
was fully abreast of the world in most however limited in vision it may at times
aspects of pure science, and in some aspects appear, is nevertheless the encouraging
it had taken a definitely leading position, mark of a prosperous and unspoiled coun-
This occurred because of a very large effort, try. While this spirit remains, our colleges
and because of the work of many scientists, may indeed have times of retrenchment
located in all sorts of organizations : in from overexpansion, but they will not have
commercial laboratories, in government to become entirely practical and conven-
laboratories, in universities both state and tional in order to survive, and they will
private, and in definitely scientific institu- continue to be one place where pure science
tions. It came about because of the support will find the freedom which is essential
of the American people for this sort of for its creative work,
endeavor, expressed in a multitude of There is no doubt, also, that government
ways. In the long run there is no reason will continue to support the many labora-
to fear that fundamental science will not tories which today form part of its struc-
prosper in this country. ture. They perform a much needed func-

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

tion. The maintenance of standards, the
scientific control of materials affecting the
public health, the development of detailed
knowledge of the public domain, the con-
trol of injurious insects and blights, the
prediction of weather, these and many
other scientific tasks are best conducted
centrally and under government auspices.
Those who labor in these ways merit full
support, and their labors are essential to
our health and prosperity. At times they
can also add to our fundamental scientific
knowledge in notable ways. Yet their
primary responsibilities are heavy and
definite, and they cannot depart from them
generally for that detached and often in-
definite search for new and basic knowl-
edge which is characteristic of pure science,
and which is necessary if the body of
our national scientific effort is to remain
complete.

The rise of the great industrial research
laboratories in this country has been strik-
ing. Equally striking, but not so apparent,
is the tendency for these laboratories to
accompany their applied research, directed
at the immediate needs of the industry,
by a backlog of more fundamental study,
often as far removed from immediate
utility as much of the research in uni-
versities. It is an excellent trend, and it
will certainly continue, if industry in this
country is reasonably successful and pros-
perous. Still, full progress in pure science
would hardly occur in industrial labora-
tories unless the independent scientist set
the pace, and there are whole fields of pure
science into which industrial laboratories
would not be expected to enter.

As the pattern of scientific research de-
velops after the war, it will be fully clear
that it will not be complete unless inde-
pendent scientific institutions, among
which the Carnegie Institution of Wash-

ington is notable, continue to conduct
their share of the effort. It is not because
their contribution, measured in dollars or
man-years, is any considerable fraction of
the total research effort of the country in
all forms; indeed, the fraction today is
very small. It is rather because there are
things to be done, regions of thought
to be explored, for which institutions of
this sort are peculiarly adapted; and be-
cause their presence can have an inte-
grating and inspiring effect upon research
generally. If the trends should be such
that no institution of this sort could func-
tion effectively, the loss to American
science would indeed be serious.

There is no doubt that the Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington will continue. There
is some doubt whether it can maintain its
affairs on a basis where it can not only con-
duct its own research programs, but also
reach out with aid to others, and be in a
position to initiate where there is need for
the type of effort which it can alone supply.
The problem of maintaining it in health
through the vicissitudes of a post-war
period is not yet even formulated to the
point where it can be definitely grasped.
At the proper time it must be solved. In
the meantime the Institution is devoting
its full effort to the winning of the war at
the earliest possible moment. In this effort
it is a partner with the great and powerful
aggregate of American science in all its
forms. It will undoubtedly continue to be
a vigorous partner, when peace returns,
in the task of bringing the true benefits
of science to the people, to increase their
safety and comfort, to remove their ills,
and to add to their knowledge of their
history and environment. Those who
guide it have a serious obligation to ensure
that it may thus contribute effectively
and fully.

REPORTS OF DEPARTMENTAL ACTIVITIES
AND COOPERATIVE STUDIES

ASTRONOMY

Mount Wilson Observatory
Special Projects

TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES

Geophysical Laboratory

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism

Special Projects

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Division of Plant Biology

Department of Embryology

Department of Genetics

Nutrition Laboratory

Special Projects

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Division of Historical Research
Special Projects

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

Pasadena, California
WALTER S. ADAMS, Director

As the war has increased in intensity,
demands upon scientific men throughout
the country have also increased and every
institution has felt the need for contribut-
ing in all possible ways through its staff
and its equipment to the success of the
military forces. From the Observatory,
additional members of the staff have
gone to undertake research on problems
relating to the war at various laboratories
throughout the country; and of those who
remain, several are giving a large propor-
tion of their time to similar work with
the facilities available in Pasadena. In
addition, the instrument and optical shops
are devoted almost exclusively to the design
and construction of instruments for mili-
tary use, under contracts with the Army

and the Office of Scientific Research and
Development.

The reduction in the scientific staff has
necessarily led to some decrease in the
normal research activities of the Observa-
tory and has thrown a heavier burden
upon those who have continued their
astronomical work. Although these con-
sist for the most part of the older mem-
bers of the staff, their interest and devo-
tion have made it possible to continue
the major investigations without interrup-
tion and have led to results of interest
in every field. Often the continuity of
research, especially of astronomical obser-
vation, adds very greatly to its permanent
value.

STAFF AND ORGANIZATION

Research Division

Solar Physics: Seth B. Nicholson, Harold D.
Babcock, Joseph Hickox, Edison Hoge,
Edison Pettit, Robert S. Richardson, Mary
F. Coffeen, Elizabeth S. Mulders, Myrtle L.
Richmond, Louise Ware.

Stellar Motions and Statistics: Adriaan van
Maanen, Ralph E. Wilson, A. Louise
Lowen.

Stellar Photometry: Walter Baade, Mary
Joyner Seares.

Stellar Spectroscopy: Walter S. Adams, Wil-
liam H. Christie, Theodore Dunham, Jr.,
Milton L. Humason, Alfred H. Joy, Paul
W. Merrill, Rudolph Minkowski, Roscoe
F. Sanford, Gustaf Stromberg, Olin C. Wil-
son, Ralph E. Wilson, Dorothy N. Davis,
Ada M. Brayton, Sylvia Burd, Cora G.
Burwell, A. Louise Lowen.

Nebular Photography, Photometry, and Spec-
troscopy: Edwin P. Hubble, Walter Baade,

Milton L. Humason, Rudolph Minkowski,

Sylvia Burd.
Physical Laboratory: Arthur S. King, John A.

Anderson, Robert B. King.
Editorial Division: Paul W. Merrill,. editor;

Elizabeth Connor, librarian; Alice S. Beach,

secretary and stenographer.

Alfred H. Joy has continued throughout
the year as Secretary of the Observatory.

Of the members listed, Edwin P. Hubble,
Theodore Dunham, Jr., William H. Chris-
tie, Olin C. Wilson, and Robert B. King
are on leave of absence to engage in in-
vestigations relating to the war. In addi-
tion, Gustaf Stromberg and Dorothy N.
Davis are devoting most of their time to
war work in Pasadena. Many others have
been engaged upon specific problems con-
nected with the instruments for military
use under construction in the optical and
instrument shops.

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Two members of the scientific staff who
have been associated with the Observatory
almost from its beginning retired during
the year. Dr. Arthur S. King, Superin-
tendent of the Physical Laboratory, retired
on February i, 1943, and Miss Louise
Ware on August 1, 1942. The Observa-
tory is deeply indebted to them for the
many valuable contributions they have
made to its success during the long period
of their service.

Research Associates

Sir James Jeans, Dorking, England; Henry
Norris Russell, Princeton University; Fred-
erick H. Seares, Pasadena; Joel Stebbins,
University of Wisconsin.

Dr. Russell, during a visit to Pasadena
in February and March 1943, continued
his term analysis of the spectra of neutral
and ionized gadolinium and succeeded in
classifying many hundreds of lines accord-
ing to energy levels. He also devoted
considerable time to a study of the phys-
ical characteristics of the companions of
very small mass recently discovered in a
few stellar binary systems. Dr. Stebbins,
assisted by Mr. William Boricius, of the
University of Wisconsin, during the sum-
mer of 1942 measured about 150 stars of
all spectral types with his photoelectric
photometer. Dr. Seares, with the assistance
of Miss Joyner, has completed and pre-
pared for publication his extensive analysis
of the colors, spectral types, and color
temperatures of stars near the north pole,
and has found interesting results for the
structure and absorption of the obscuring
clouds in this region.

Temporary Associates

Dr. S. A. Mitchell, Director of the
Leander McCormick Observatory, and
Dr. John C. Duncan, Director of the
Whitin Observatory, both spent the sum-
mer months of 1942 in Pasadena and

carried on observations on Mount Wilson.
Dr. Mitchell continued his investigation
of the radial velocities of faint stars in a
number of selected fields, and Dr. Duncan
photographed several nebulae and star
fields of special interest with the 100-inch
telescope. Dr. Harold F. Weaver carried on
photometric observations at the Observa-
tory for about three months during the
summer of 1942.

Many other scientists visited the observa-
tory during the year, among them Colonel
F. G. M. Stratton, of Cambridge Univer-
sity, and Dr. R. d'E. Atkinson, of the
Royal Observatory at Greenwich. Dr. P.
Swings, formerly of the Yerkes Observa-
tory, is now in Pasadena engaged upon
optical problems relating to the war, and
his association with the scientific staflf has
been greatly appreciated.

Instrument Construction and Design

Design: Edgar C. Nichols, Harold S. Kinney.

Optical Shop: John S. Dalton, Donald O.
Hendrix.

Instrument Shop: Albert Mclntire, foreman;
Elmer Prall, instrument maker; Ernest W.
Hartong, Myo C. Hurlbut, Fred Scherff,
Oscar Swanson, Albert Labrow, Donald W.
Yeager, machinists; James Chapman, pat-
tern maker; Harry S. Fehr, cabinet maker.

On October 1, 1942, Mr. Dalton retired
from active service in the optical shop.
He had been with the Observatory for
many years, during which he had taken a
large part in the completion of the 60-inch
and 100-inch mirrors and many other im-
portant optical units.

Maintenance and Operation

Office: Anne McConnell, bookkeeper; Doro-
thea Neuens, stenographer and telephone
operator.

Operation: Ashel N. Beebe, superintendent
of construction; Sidney A. Jones and Ken-
neth de Huff, engineers; Thomas A. Nel-

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

son, Floyd Day, Louis S. Graf, night as-
sistants; Anthony Wausnock and Mrs.
Wausnock, stewards; Arnold T. Ratzlaff,
janitor.

Several of the individuals whose names
are listed above have been associated with
the Observatory for but part of the year.

OBSERVING CONDITIONS

The winter season was characterized by
abnormally heavy rainfall, three-fourths of
which was concentrated in three storms
in January, February, and early March.
Within 24 hours ending at 4 p.m. on Janu-
ary 22, 1943, 14-85 inches of rain fell, and
in the succeeding 24 hours an additional
13.40 inches. These precipitations are the
heaviest for such periods on record at
Mount Wilson. The total precipitation for
the season was 65.85 inches, but the winter
was unusually mild and the total snow-
fall was only 9.5 inches. Observing con-
ditions, indicated in the accompanying
record for the 60-inch telescope, were con-
siderably above the average.

As a cooperative step toward the con-
servation of tires and fuel for motor cars,
the buildings of the Observatory were
closed to the public for the present period
of rationing.

Month

1942:

July

August

September. .

October. . . .

November. .

December. .
1943:

January. . . .

February. . .

March

April

May

June

Total

Mean 31 years

Observations

All

night

30
26
26
25
18
17

12
13
12
13
16
23

231
204

Part of
night

7
11

63
85

None

71
76

SOLAR RESEARCH

Solar Photography servations were made on 341 days, the

Solar photographs were made on 327 lar S est number since daily magnetic ob-

days between July 1, 1942 and June 30, stations of sunspots were begun, 26 years

1943 by Hickox, Hoge, Nicholson, Keith a § ' Slxteen da y s were wlthout s P ots in

Pierce, and Richardson, as follows: l 94 2 > as compared with 2 in 1941. In 1942,

189 spot groups were observed, 63 less

" ,,.'"' ' i. tnan m I 94 I ? tne northern and southern

Ha spectrohelioprams of spot groups, , . , , . n

/re sr hemispheres being equally active.

60-root rocus 660 r o ~\ j

Ha spectroheliograms, 18-foot focus. . . 1296 The monthl Y mea » s of the numbers of

K2 spectroheliograms, 7-foot focus. . . 9210 groups observed daily during the past two

K2 spectroheliograms, 18-foot focus... 1252 and one-half years are given in the first

K prominences, 18-foot focus 1203 table on the following page.

The first sunspot group of the new cycle

sunspot Activity appeared on December 20, 1942 in latitude

During the calendar year 1942, sunspot N 32°. It was very small, with irregular

activity continued to decrease notably. Ob- polarities. The second group appeared on

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Month

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Yearly average

Daily number

1941

4.8
5.5
5.0
2.7
3.1
4.7
5.2
5.4
4.9
3.7
3.4
3.7

4.3

1942

3.3

4.4
4.9
5.2
2.6
1.3
1.9
2.1
2.1
2.4
3.0
2.6

3.0

1943

1.1

2.0
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.7

May 16, 1943 in latitude S 41 °. It was the
farthest south and the largest group ever
photographed more than 40 ° from the
equator. The third group, which was very
small, appeared on June 7, 1943 in the
region where the large group of May
had been.

Sunspot Polarities

Magnetic polarities in each spot group
have, so far as possible, been observed at
least once. The classification of groups
observed between July 1, 1942 and June
30, 1943 is indicated in the table given
below. "Regular" groups of the old cycle
in the northern hemisphere are those in
which the preceding spot has N (north-
seeking) polarity and the following spot S

polarity; in the southern hemisphere the
polarities are reversed. For spot groups
of the new cycle, the distribution of mag-
netic polarities is opposite to that just
described for the old cycle.

Solar Prominences

In continuation of his study of solar
prominences, mainly with the mono-
chromator, Pettit has given especial atten-
tion to the interactive and the tornado
types. Photographs of an interactive promi-
nence taken with the monochromator on
August 7—8, 1942 showed clearly the inter-
change of gases, although a survey of the
past spectroheliograph records of the
Mount Wilson and Yerkes observatories
had shown only unidirectional motion of
the knots and streamers in similar objects.
If electric fields form the motive force,
the fact that knots and streamers can move
from one prominence to another indicates
that electric charges of either sign can exist
within a prominence.

That interactive prominences may enter
the eruptive state was demonstrated by the
prominence of October 3, 1942, which
showed velocities of 14, 21, and 42 km/sec,
and moved along a trajectory inclined 34 °
to the solar radius. The angle of ejection
of eruptive prominences, although usually
small, is sometimes large, 63 ° in one case.
Of the 39 available trajectories, two-thirds
are inclined less than 20 ° to the radius.

Eruptive prominences move great dis-

POLARITY

Hemisphere

Regular

Irregular

Unclassified

Old cycle

New cycle

Old cycle

New cycle

Old cycle

New cycle

North

South

2
2

19
16

Whole sun

103

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

tances without change in velocity. Eight-
een such motions which exceed 200,000 km
have been observed, including two which
exceed a solar radius.

A discussion of all the available data
seems to indicate that the frequency of
eruptive prominences is about 400 per
year at sunspot maximum, and 25 to 50
per year at sunspot minimum. A study
of the frequency with which eruptive
prominences reach various heights shows
that between 100,000 and 500,000 km the
frequency is about the same, and that the
chance that an eruptive prominence will
exceed 500,000 km is only 0.2.

In previous observations of tornado
prominences it was found by motion-
picture projection that the peripheral
velocity amounted to 54 km/sec in one
case, but spectroscopic evidence was lack-
ing. A prominence was finally observed
spectroscopically on March 23, 1943 in
which Doppler displacements of the Ha
line approximating ± 1 A were indicated.
This implies a peripheral velocity of about
45 km/sec. Higher velocities than this
may be expected, since one tornado is
known to have been destroyed by its cen-
trifugal force.

A study of quiescent prominences under
good atmospheric conditions shows that
the best examples have a palisaded struc-
ture which might be compared to a forest
of rodlike branches or withes. They are
not necessarily connected with the chromo-
sphere. At times 20 or 30 rods have been
counted on the photographs. Each is about
2000 km wide and may be 50,000 km high.
Other prominences never show this struc-
ture, although the dimensions of stream-
ers in active prominences are of the same
order. Measurements of a considerable
number of streamers give widths which
average 1000 km; widths of 500 km are
common, of 4000 or 5000 km rare. Stream-
ers may be several hundred thousand km

long, but those in ordinary active promi-
nences are only about 50,000 km long.

The H and K Lines and Magnetic Storms

The comparison by Richardson of pho-
tographs of the H and K lines taken
during the violent magnetic storms of
September 18, 1941 and March 1, 1942
with similar photographs taken during a
period of magnetic calm is still in progress.
The object is to test the suggestion by
Chapman that a cloud of charged par-
ticles moving earthward during a magnetic
storm might be detected by a faint ab-
sorption line on the violet side of the
solar lines. Difficulty has been experienced
in finding a satisfactory method of re-
duction such that the intensities of the
lines determined during periods of mag-
netic calm and magnetic storm are strictly
comparable. This difficulty has been solved,
and reduction of the tracings is now prac-
tically complete. A definite statement re-
garding the presence of faint violet absorp-
tion lines is impossible until a comparison
and analysis of all the lines can be made
in detail.

Compounds in the Sun

The occurrence of chemical compounds
in spot and disk has been studied by Bab-
cock and Mrs. CofTeen with the aid of
vibrational analyses compiled by Pearse
and Gaydon from laboratory data. Com-
putations by Russell of molecular abun-
dance have been extended to include (1)
some additional molecules; (2) higher
states of vibrational energy; (3) two states
of electronic excitation for NH. This has
led to the recognition of O2 in the sun,
where it appears in several faint extensions
of the Schumann-Runge band system. NH
is probably present in two low states of
electronic excitation. Excitation potentials
ranging up to about 4 volts are found rep-

8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

resented in the spectra of the more abun- Richardson to computations of tables of

dant molecules, whereas for metallic oxides solar azimuths for use in experiments with

they are restricted to a few tenths of a volt, sun compasses by the military forces.
Presence of 0> in the solar atmosphere,

even in great dilution, must reduce greatly Asteroids, Satellites, and Comets
the outflow of radiation in the region

A670-A2000 A because of its enormous ab- A search for the asteroid Adonis was

sorptive power. made by Nicholson through photographic

Seventeen compounds, including two or observations with the 100-inch telescope,

three new ones, have been identified, but No definite evidence of the presence of the

several claimed by other observers have asteroid was found on the photographs,

been excluded. although the area covered corresponded

to a range of 14 days in the time of

Ultraviolet Solar Spectrum perihelion passage. Richardson assisted in

the observations.

With a new combination of filters, Bab- Nicholson has also reobserved the posi .

cock has obtained several spectrograms dons of [he fainter ^^ o£ j ker

which show many new lines between with the assistance of Miss Richmond, the

A2950 and A3000. One plate shows 47 Qrbk of ] JX has been recalculated and

lines between A2975.5 and A2983.6, where improved; and perturb ations from 1938 to

the best previous list, compiled by Buisson ^ haye been computed _

and Fabry, from a spectrogram taken with n-j- T t 7 k t £ 11

, 1 ,. . . 1 r ,. Periodic comet Wolt 1 was round by

much lower dispersion, gives only 16 lines. r> j 1 1 1 j- j c

_, r r 1 1 Baade close to the place predicted from

ihe spectra or a tew large spots have T . . , ., , ^ . . ,

, 1 1 r 111 -i Kamienski s ephemens. Positions were ob-

been observed as tar toward the ultraviolet , c • 1 • m i_ j

, , tamed on five nights in November and

^ -* ' December. The photographic magnitude

was 18.6 on the international scale.

Other Solar Investigations a . £ , , £ TTr1 _. 1 ,

A series ot photographs ot Whipple s

A series of photographs in the green comet (1942Q obtained by Baade on March

region of the spectrum has been taken 11-12, 1943 with the 60-inch telescope

by Babcock with the Lummer plate and revealed surprisingly rapid changes at the

accessories for the measurement of the base of the tail, strong streamers rising

sun's general magnetic field, and additional from invisibility in less than three hours,

photographs with the Lummer plate have Several previously unidentified features

been made at various points on the equa- in the spectra of comets in the visual and

torial radius to determine the solar rota- red regions have been found by Minkowski,

tion. These spectrograms have not as yet in the course of a study of Whipple's

been measured. comet, in which they are exceptionally

Babcock has used a special liquid filter strong, to be due to bands of NH2 appear-
to photograph a few sunspot groups at the ing in ammonia-oxygen and nitrous oxide-
1 50-foot focus of the Solar Laboratory hydrogen flames. Spectrograms in the blue
telescope at an effective wave length of region taken at heliocentric cometary dis-
about A3200. Good contrast was obtained, tances of 2.1 A.U. showed as strong fea-
but the appearance of the spots was about tures only the (0,0) bands of CN at A3883
the same as in green or yellow light. and the A4050 group of CH2, with the CN

Considerable time has been devoted by bands stronger than those of CH2.

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY o

STELLAR INVESTIGATIONS

Parallaxes and Proper Motions Faint Companion of 6i Cygni

In continuation of his program on stellar Dr. Russell has investigated the physical

parallaxes, van Maanen has completed characteristics of the companion of small

measurements of 14 faint stars of large mass in the system of 61 Cygni, the exist-

proper motion. ence of which was inferred by Strand

Observations of proper motion by van from systematic deviations in the orbits
Maanen have included a search for very of the bright stars. The theories used by
faint stars of considerable motion made Russell, although successfully applied to
on photographs taken ten years or more normal lucid stars, require considerable
apart. Second-epoch photographs of 14 extrapolation in the case of these small
additional Cepheid variables have been ob- bodies, and the results are doubtless at-
tained, making a total of 91 fields of such £ected h Y lar g e uncertainties. Nevertheless
stars now available for measurement. An the conclusions are of much interest,
interesting individual star under investiga- Wlth the mass S iven b Y Strand > the mini '
tion was found by Dr. Zwicky to have a mum radms 1S £ound to be comparable
small color index, but seems to belong to Wlth that o£ Saturn; the maximum radlus >

the Taurus cluster and should be a white rou S U y t 10 times that of the sun ' Above

1 r two or three times the minimum radius,

~ • r 1 1 r 1 the gas laws will hold approximately and

Iwo pairs ot photographs of the h , ° . , rr / ,

-r, ., . ior r the mean internal temperature can be cal-

rersei cluster taken at the 80-root focus 1 1 t- j- r 1 1 r

r , r . , , . . . culated. ror a radius one-rourth that or

or the 60-inch telescope and separated by , 1 11 ■ 1 t L

. . r 11 the sun and a mean molecular weight or

intervals ot 27 and 17 years have been , u . 1 . . • r 1 . 1

_ -it r > the central temperature is round to be

measured extensively by van Maanen. I?6oo?000 o K? but the sur£ace temperature

About 800 stars to photographic magm- is beW that of sel f„i uminosity . As seen
tude 16.1 have been included. Although from the bnght stars o£ the system? the
the motion of the cluster with reference compan i on s hi n ing by reflected light would
to the field stars is only about o'.'oo 4 , the be a planet much brighter than Saturn
probable errors of measurement are so without its ring, but it is much too faint
small that it has been possible to identify t0 De seen from the earth. The calculation
over 100 stars as field stars. If there were indicates that the radiation of the corn-
no space absorption, the total number to panion could be maintained by contraction
be expected should lie between 150 and alone for a period of 5X10 9 years at a
180. It is well known, however, that ab- cost of only 1/400 of its radius,
sorption amounting to one or even two

magnitudes is present in this region, the Photoelectric Measures of Stars

effect of which would be to reduce the Stebbins has continued the measures of

number of observable field stars. Probably co l ors £ stars witn a photometer devised

all such stars to magnitude 15 are now an d constructed by Whitford. The combi-

known, but among the fainter stars the nation of a photoelectric cell with suitable

smaller proper motions and the larger filters isolates six spectral regions from

probable errors of measurement make the A3500 to A10000. The study of interstellar

separation of cluster from field stars in- absorption from reddened B-type stars has

creasingly difficult. been completed and is ready for publica-

I0 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

tion. About 150 other stars of all types result. Deviations from the mean absorp-
have been measured. The principal devia- tion are appreciable but surprisingly small
tions from black-body radiation are caused for so large a range in galactic latitude
by the strong hydrogen absorption in the (18 — 38 ). The average deviation in-
ultraviolet region of A-type stars and by creases with the distance of the stars, but
the strong bands in the red and infrared at most the root mean-square value is
regions of M stars. Otherwise the stars only 0.04 mag, or about one-seventh the
are found to radiate much like black color excess. Incidentally, this part of the
bodies. The color temperatures derived discussion provides an exacting test of the
from these measures are not strikingly dif- constancy of the zero point of the color
ferent from previous results, ranging from indices of the Polar Catalogue. For fields
about 24,000° K for types O and early of 8 or 10 square degrees the local error
B down to 2000° K for the reddest M is of the order of 0.01 mag.
stars. The value for Ao is 1 1,000 ° K, and A further result of considerable astro-
there seems to be no way of reconciling physical interest is the generally small dis-
these measures with a higher temperature persion in color index for stars of the same
for this type. spectral type, a matter on which hitherto

we have had no reliable information. For

Results from Colors and Spectral Types types Ko and earlier the upper limit of the

of Polar Stars dispersion is 0.035 ma g- F° r K5-M stars it

With the assistance of Miss Joyner, Seares is about 0.1 mag.

has finished a series of investigations based The deviations from the mean absorp-

on the colors and spectral types of stars tion and the dispersion in color are derived

near the north pole, which confirm and from series of residuals given by a certain

extend a number of provisional results equation of condition, and once determined

summarized in earlier reports: The sys- can be used to find the principal remain-

tematic errors in the color indices of the ing component of the residuals, namely,

Mount Wilson Polar Catalogue affect only the accidental error of spectral classifica-

stars brighter than the ninth magnitude tion. A good deal of information on the

of types earlier than Go; the revised spec- errors of various classification systems has

trum-color relation (international system, thus been obtained,
absorption-free) and the resulting color

temperatures of stars remain unchanged; Extension of the Photographic Scale in
and the general uniformity of the obscur- Certain Selected Areas
ing cloud over the polar cap, 20 ° in diam- Since a comparison of the final magni-
eter, now seems to be well established. The tudes mentioned in last year's report with
solar system is close to if not actually a those of the Mount Wilson Catalogue re-
little within the cloud. The color excess vealed marked divergences for two of the
increases at a nearly linear rate to a value Selected Areas, an additional series of 15-
of 0.27 mag at about 450 parsecs, where minute exposures was obtained with the
the cloud apparently ends. The total ab- half-filter to check the brighter end of the
sorption of photographic light by the cloud earlier 60-minute series in all Areas investi-
is therefore 70 per cent, of photovisual light gated. The discussion of both sets of ex-
60 per cent (A -1 law) . . posures, which cover the magnitude range

A subdivision of the polar cap into small 13.0 to 20.5, has been completed for S.A.

fields shows everywhere much the same 68. It shows that the magnitude scales of

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

the short and the long series are in ex-
cellent agreement, and that the discord-
ances noted in the intercomparison with
the Mount Wilson Catalogue must be
ascribed to irregularities in the scale of the

star into the field with a pyroxalin film
4(j thick, thus doubling the brightness and
eliminating the troublesome out-of-focus
image.
The first measure was made on the

latter. As a check, Miss Joyner has meas- ascending slope of the light-curve, and the

ured the original plates for S.A. 68, all maximum brightness observed, +0.35 mag,

of which were of poor quality (the meas- was on November 11. The general form

ures for the Catalogue were by other of the light-curve is that characteristic of

observers). Comparison of the revised rapidly changing novae, but no such large

magnitudes with the half-filter magnitudes oscillations in light at time of transition

shows that the waves of smaller amplitude from continuous to bright-line spectrum

have disappeared entirely and that those were observed as occurred in Nova Persei

of larger amplitude are much reduced. (1901) and Nova Aquilae (1918). The

Discordances of this type are not surprising, residuals from the mean curve are less

than 0.2 mag, the probable error of the
magnitude from a single night's observa-
tions being ±0.05 mag. The last meas-
ures, on May 6, gave a magnitude of 8.35,
the light-curve having shown a uniform
drop of 1.04 mag per 100 days.
The absolute magnitude of Nova Puppis

since the paucity of stars in high-latitude
fields often makes it difficult to insure uni-
formity all along the scale. This difficulty
does not affect the mean scale.

Visual Light-Curve of Nova Puppis
(1942)

Nova Puppis was discovered independ- at maximum of light as determined spec-

ently by Pettit on the morning of Novem- troscopically was — 10.1. This would cor-

ber 10, 1942, and a series of measures with respond to an energy radiation of 5.3 X 10 44

a Pickering wedge photometer was com- ergs, about 50 per cent more than that of

menced which extended over 86 nights Nova Aquilae (191 8). The Harvard pho-

distributed throughout 6 months. The in- tographs indicate that the pre-nova mag-

strument was modified by replacing the nitude of the star must have been fainter

parallel plate used to bring the artificial than 17.

STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY

With advances in the study of stellar
spectra, the number of stars found to ex-
hibit variable spectral characteristics has in-
creased very greatly. Stars which vary in
light and those which show emission lines
in their spectra are especially subject to
spectral variation, and in many the changes
are of great astrophysical interest. Since
the variations are not necessarily periodic,
the study of individual stars over a con-
siderable time rather than groups of stars
for brief periods is essential. As observa-
tional material accumulates, it becomes

possible to establish relationships between
different stars and to divide them into
groups according to spectral variations. At
present, however, studies of individual
stars form a considerable part of the stellar
spectroscopic work in progress.

Interesting features of the year's work
in this field have been the increasing ap-
plication of the high dispersion of the
Schmidt cameras of the coude grating
spectrograph to the study of the finer detail
and the structure of lines in the spectra
of the brighter stars; and the extent to

I2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

which fainter stars have come within the have not yet been observed, and about

reach of observation with moderate dis- 80 need additional observations,

persion. The use of some of the extremely It is significant that practically all the

rapid plates recently made by the Eastman ninth-magnitude A-type stars listed as

Kodak Company has enabled Joy to carry members on the basis of common proper

his observations of variable stars to mag- motion are definitely not members. The

nitude 14 on an adequate scale; and the cluster stars, other than the few known

same emulsions have made it possible to giants, fall very closely upon the main

photograph early-type stars of the sixth type-luminosity sequence within the range

magnitude with the 114-inch camera of A5 to K5. No member of class M has yet

the coude spectrograph with an exposure been found,
time of 2 hours.

Early-Type Stars with Emission Lines

Taurus Cluster Supplement to Catalogue. Ten years

ago, Merrill and Miss Burwell published

Because their distances, and hence their a Catalogue and bibliography of stars of
absolute magnitudes, can be derived ac- classes B and A whose spectra have bright
curately from their motions, the stars of hydrogen lines. This compilation, which
the Taurus cluster are especially useful for lists 416 stars and 363 references, has proved
determining the relation between spectral to be of considerable service to spectro-
type and luminosity among the stars in scopic observers. The authors have now
general. For this purpose it is essential brought the Catalogue up to date by pre-
that we know which stars are members paring a supplement with 250 stars and
of the cluster. Common proper motion 407 references. Numerous notes record un-
is not necessarily decisive, owing to con- published data and call attention to the
siderable stream motion in the general chief features of some of the more interest-
direction of the cluster vertex. Common ing spectra. Of the 250 additional stars,
radial velocity in addition to common 166 were discovered at Mount Wilson,
proper motion should be fairly decisive. The tenth-magnitude star HD 242257,
About 250 stars brighter than 11.0 have recently discovered to have bright lines in
proper motions reasonably close to those its spectrum, is of interest because the
of the brighter members of the cluster, hydrogen lines have displaced dark corn-
Some years ago it was proposed to observe ponents, a fact which indicates that hydro-
the radial velocities of as many as possible gen atoms are streaming outward from
of these stars. the star's surface with a velocity of 530

During the past year 142 spectrograms km/sec. Weak dark lines of neutral iron

of 118 stars, with magnitudes 7.0 to 9.5, are undisplaced. The investigation of HD

have been obtained by R. E. Wilson, who 142983 (48 Librae) has been continued by

has measured all these and 69 earlier plates Merrill and Sanford. During the past year

of 57 stars. All together, radial velocities the radial velocity has decreased by about

are now available for 217 stars, although 20 km/sec.

a considerable number depend upon but Combination spectra. A series of spectro-

one plate. Of these, 150 are cluster mem- grams of the peculiar star BF Cygni,

bers, 20 are probable, 25 doubtful, and 22 obtained in the fall of 1942, shows sur-

certainly not members. Thirty-five stars, prisingly rapid changes in the intensities

mainly between magnitudes 9.0 and 11.0, of the nebular lines. A detailed study of

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

the displacements of various groups of
bright lines is nearly complete. Other stars
with combination spectra observed during
the year are AX Persei, RW Hydrae, CI
Cygni, and Z Andromedae.

Dwarf Stars

Much time has been devoted by Joy to
the completion of the program planned
some years ago for determining the radial
velocities, spectral types, and spectroscopic
absolute magnitudes of a selected list of
dwarf stars with large proper motions. It
is expected that within a few months the
observations of about 120 stars having
proper motions greater than 0V35 per year
will have been completed. Emission lines
of hydrogen and calcium have been found
in the spectra of a number of these stars.
The spectra of several very faint dwarf
stars of especial interest have been observed
by Humason.

Variable Stars

Spectrographic observations of stars be-
longing to little-known classes such as RV
Tauri, SS Cygni, R Coronae, W Virginis,
and T Tauri variables have been con-
tinued by Joy. The spectrum of one of
the components of the double variable star
UZ Tauri showed a remarkable change
in the autumn of 1942. As the star in-
creased in brightness, the emission spec-
trum characteristic of the T Tauri stars
appeared in such strength as to overshadow
the dwarf Me spectrum previously seen.
These observations indicate that the varia-
tion of light is probably of the T Tauri
type and that a third star may be present in
addition to the visual pair originally seen.

Observations of about 20 variable stars
of high luminosity in the globular clusters
have been continued.

A new investigation of the ultraviolet
region, A3400-A4000, of the spectra of long-

period variables has been begun by Merrill.
This region, which is free from heavy
bands, is of especial interest for the study
of atomic lines.

N- and R-Type Stars

Sanford has now determined the radial
velocities of about 100 additional stars of
types N and R, many of them from two
or more spectrograms. Satisfactory agree-
ment has been found between the results
obtained with low dispersion and those
for some of the brighter stars observed
with the coude spectrograph. With the
new Eastman IV N emulsion, spectra of
three N-type stars were photographed in
the region A7000— A8700, one of them, 19
Piscium, with the 114-inch camera.

Faint Blue Stars

Spectroscopic observations of 48 stars
found by Dr. Zwicky to have a very small
color index have been completed by Hum-
ason. Fifteen of the stars are in the
vicinity of the Hyades cluster, and the
remaining 33 near the north galactic pole.
Most of the stars are fainter than photo-
graphic magnitude 13.0 and have been ob-
served with the low dispersion of 220
A/mm. The spectral types range from
Bo to A, most of them being Bo to B5.

Identification of Elements and System-
atic Displacements of Lines

Miss Davis has utilized many of the
high-dispersion coude spectrograms of late-
type stars for a study of the identifications
and the displacements of certain lines, es-
pecially those of the rare earths. In the
red region of (3 Pegasi the potassium lines
are strong and displaced 2.5 km/sec to
the violet in relation to the ordinary stellar
lines. The rubidium pair is weak but
present, and has a somewhat smaller dis-
placement.

j^ CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

From measurements of the lines of nu- nitude among the brighter stars, the sepa-

merous elements in the spectra of several ration increasing progressively with lumi-

giant stars of type M, Miss Davis draws nosity. As between dwarfs and giants the

the following conclusions: (i) Resonance effect is very marked, having been noted

lines of Ca n and Al i are displaced more qualitatively in earlier observations. A

than lines of other elements. (2) Displace- recent spectrogram of 61 1 Cygni taken by

ments are small and to the violet for lines Adams with the 114-inch coude spectro-

arising from levels with excitation poten- graph shows H and K to have two emis-

tials between 0.5 and 1.6 volts. (3) Absorp- sion components separated by only 0.17 A.

tion components of TV resonance lines, The corresponding separation in a Orionis

when the lines are double, are less widely is 1.38 A.

separated than those of Fe, Cr, and Mn. A by-product of this study by Miss Davis
The mean position of the components of is that the Hz line in emission, first found
the double lines is found to be very close by O. C. Wilson in the spectrum of a
to the normal position, as previous results Bootis, occurs in numerous stars of types
had already shown. A comparison of the G and K, but is not present in M-type
spectrograms of a Orionis by Adams gives spectra,
definite evidence that the relative intensi-
ties of the components of the double lines Three Bright Early-Type Stars
are subject to considerable variation. Sanford has continued his observations

of the variable Ha line in the spectrum

H and K Lines in Late-Type Stars of p 0rionis The emission may be on

The usual structure of the H and K either side or both sides of the absorption
lines in late-type giant stars consists of two line, may be completely absent, or may be
emission components separated by strong so strong that the absorption is nearly
central absorption with wide absorption masked. No periodicity has yet been found
wings on the outer sides of the emission for these changes. Variations in the radial
lines. The emission components show wide velocity of the star do not conform to
differences in relative intensity and width Plaskett's velocity-curve,
from star to star, and appear to vary at Recent observations by Adams of the
different times even in the same star. In spectrum of P Cygni with high dispersion
many respects the similarity of behavior show the gradual disappearance of the
to that in the solar spectrum is marked, greatly displaced violet absorption com-
An upper limit of 0.03 has been deter- ponent of the hydrogen lines which was
mined by Miss Davis for the ratio of discovered a few years ago. This corn-
energy in the emission components in a ponent, which was relatively sharp, gave a
Bootis to the total energy absorbed by the radial velocity of —240 km/sec. It disap-
K line. The minimum equivalent width peared completely between July 1942 and
of the absorption is 21 A. In the more April 1943. The remaining wide absorp-
luminous stars the central absorption line tion showed many variations in structure,
is displaced to the violet, but the mean Three coude spectrograms of t Scorpii,
of the wave lengths of the emission lines dispersion 2.9 A/mm, provided the basis
has the normal position. for a brief study by Merrill and Adams

There seems to be considerable evidence of the widths and displacements of lines of

that the separation of the emission com- various elements. Total widths are approxi-

ponents is correlated with absolute mag- mately as follows: H, 23 A; He, 1-8 A;

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY ^

0, Ne, etc., 0.5 A. With a few exceptions, Some clouds are found to extend over
lines of various elements yield accordant great areas. The narrowness of the corn-
values of the radial velocity. Some of the ponents indicates the absence of any con-
exceptions probably reflect the instability siderable turbulence in the clouds,
of the corresponding lines in the labora- The additional sharp interstellar lines
tory. The profiles and displacements of due to Ca 1 and Fe 1 and to the diatomic
the helium lines offer strong evidence of molecules CN, CH 1, and CH 11 have
Stark effect in the star's atmosphere. also been studied on these spectrograms.

Marked differences in relative intensity be-

T T tween the lines of CH 1 and CH 11 are

Interstellar Lines . 1#rt . . .

round in different stars. Comparisons or

Numerous stars of spectral type B in radial velocity indicate which of the clouds

open clusters are under observation by San- producing the components of H and K are

ford both for correlation of the intensities involved in the formation of these addi-

of the interstellar H and K lines with the tional lines.

distances of the clusters and for a study An examination of the brighter stars in

of the broad interstellar absorption line the cluster of the Pleiades shows the pres-

near A4430. He has also added four stars ence of interstellar lines in eight of the

of types N and R to the two previously nine stars investigated. They are probably

known which show interstellar D lines masked by the strong absorption lines in

separated from the stellar D lines. the present spectrum of Pleione. Marked

The results of an investigation of the differences are found in the intensities of

structure of the interstellar H and K lines the lines in the various stars, and perhaps

in the spectra of 50 stars has been pub- the most interesting result is that two stars,

lished by Adams. The spectrograms have Asterope and Merope, show interstellar

the linear scale 2.9 A/mm. More than 80 lines of ionized CH without interstellar H

per cent of these stars show complex lines and K. These are the first stars to be found

consisting of from two to five components, showing this peculiarity. Evidently the di-

thus indicating the same number of dis- versity in the physical conditions and per-

crete gaseous interstellar clouds between haps in the composition of the clouds in

the observer and the stars. As a rule, stars the direction of the Pleiades cluster is very

in Perseus and Scorpius show the least considerable.

complexity in these lines, and those in An attempt was made by Adams to de-
Orion, Sagittarius, and Cygnus the great- tect possible interstellar lines of the red CN
est. The intensities of the components have band in the region A6500— A9000 of the
been estimated, and measurements of radial star £ Ophiuchi. No such lines were found,
velocity provide a means for identifying but the interstellar lines of neutral potas-
clouds in neighboring parts of the sky. sium near A7700 are well seen.

GALACTIC NEBULAE AND NOVAE

A survey by Minkowski of 63 objects, eral of these nebulae are of rare types,

photographed by W. C. Miller with an Most of the remaining objects are B- and

objective prism, which show Ha in emis- O-type stars with strong emission lines, but

sion with little or no continuous spectrum, some are stars of peculiar types. The most

indicates that 32 are planetary nebulae and interesting of these is an irregular variable

7 are diffuse nebulae. The spectra of sev- of a type closely related to Z Andromedae.

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

The spectrum shows numerous metallic
emission lines and hydrogen absorption
lines of most unusual structure. The ab-
sorption lines consist of several compo-
nents of rapidly varying intensities with
displacements between —500 and —2200
km/sec. These displacements are the larg-
est yet observed, except in the spectra of
some novae.

The spectrum of Nova T Coronae Bore-
alis has undergone some rapid changes. A
shell absorption spectrum in the ultra-
violet region, which was observed by Min-
kowski in February 1943, disappeared one
month later, and the spectrum is now
similar to that observed before 1942.

The faint nebulosity in Cygnus has been
reobserved spectroscopically by Humason
with higher dispersion than that used
previously.

Since important information can be
gained from a study of the expanding
shells around some of the nearer novae,
both as to the luminosities of the novae
and as to the mechanism of the election
process, Baade, partly in cooperation with
Humason, has investigated the shells
around Nova Herculis (1934), Nova Persei
(1901), Nova T Aurigae (1891), and R
Aquarii. Some of the spectroscopic obser-
vations of these objects by Humason have
required exposure times of 20 hours.

Nova Herculis. Photographs obtained at
the Cassegrain focus of the 100-inch in the
summer of 1942 showed the true ring struc-
ture of the shell very clearly. Those taken
in red light proved that, in contrast with
the Ni and N2 emissions of [O 111], which
are uniformly distributed throughout the
shell, the strong red emissions are restricted
to a wide band along the minor axis and
to two faint clouds symmetrically arranged
at the ends of the major axis. Spectra of
the shell show that the [N 11] lines A6548
and A6584 are responsible for these local-
ized emissions.

As previously reported, photographs of
the shell in the light of the Ni,N2 lines
have shown no trace of two components
observed visually by Kuiper and others up
to 1942. Baade and Humason, however,
have succeeded in recording them in the
spectral images of the shell, which permit
the detection of very weak condensations
because the light emanating from a given
point of the nebular image is spread out by
the spectrograph owing to the range in
velocity. On spectra with the slit along the
major axis of the envelope, the two Kuiper
components are outstanding features in
the Ni and N2 lines.

With the newly constructed image rota-
tor, a series of spectra has been obtained
which, proceeding in steps of 15 ° in posi-
tion angle, covers the whole shell. No
additional condensations have been found,
although components 1 to 2 magnitudes
fainter than those of Kuiper should have
been easy to detect.

Nova Persei (1901). — Baade and Huma-
son have investigated the expansion of the
shell around Nova Persei by measuring
the motions and radial velocities of about a
dozen well defined condensations. The
results show that practically all the ejected
matter is contained in the rear part of the
southwest quadrant. The motion of this
main fragment of the shell seems to have
been uniform since the outburst. The
thickness of the shell, in terms of its outer
radius, is 0.22, practically the same as that
found for Nova Aquilae. The distance of
the nova, derived from the expansion data,
is 470 ±28 parsecs, and its luminosity at
maximum was M= —8.4.

Nova T Aurigae (1891). The close simi-
larity in general behavior between Nova T
Aurigae (1891) and Nova Herculis led
Baade to undertake a search for a possible
shell. Such a shell about 12" in diameter
was discovered, and, although faint, is by
no means a difficult object to photograph.

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

Like the shell of Nova Herculis, it is ellip-
tical, a fact which suggests that the rota-
tion of the star plays a role in cases in
which the ejection of the shell extends over
several months. A calculation based on
the present diameter of the shell and the
velocities observed during the outburst
gives a distance for T Aurigae of 800 ±
parsecs and a maximum luminosity of
M=— 5.3. Like Nova Herculis, T Auri-
gae is a nova of rather low luminosity.
This result confirms earlier indications
that slowly fading novae of this type are
several magnitudes less luminous than
rapidly fading novae of the Nova Aquilae
type.

R Aquarii. In a previous report Hubble
called attention to definite changes in the
nebulosity surrounding R Aquarii appear-

ing on photographs separated by 17 years.
Although outward motions seemed to be
involved, the nature of the changes was
not altogether clear. During the past sea-
son Baade obtained an excellent plate of
the nebulosity which matches closely a
similar plate taken by Hubble in 1921. A
comparison of the pair in the stereocom-
parator shows clearly that the whole outer
nebulosity is expanding. Evidently it was
ejected during a major outburst of the blue
companion of R Aquarii, which still shows
signs of ejection, as indicated by its recent
P Cygni type of spectrum.

Sanford has devoted much time to ob-
servations and measurement of the spectra
of Nova Cygni (1942) and Nova Puppis
(1942), and has published some of the re-
sults of this work.

EXTRAGALACTIC NEBULAE

Photometry

To facilitate strict intercomparisons be-
tween members of the local group of
galaxies, Baade has begun to transfer the
photometric scale of S.A. 68 to both the
Andromeda nebula and Messier 33. The
intercomparisons of S.A. 68 with the
Andromeda nebula are almost completed,
and those with Messier 33 should be fin-
ished during the coming season. As a
check on the magnitude scale in NGC
6822, intercomparisons with S.A. 136 are
under way. The scale in this Area will be
tested and extended by the platinum half-
filter method.

Continued search for variables in some
of the near-by dwarf galaxies has resulted
in the discovery of two faint Cepheids in
the Sextans system. They will be very
important in fixing the upper limit of
luminosity (brightest stars) in systems of
low stellar content.

These last investigations, which require
long exposures on the fastest available

plates, would probably have been impos-
sible under normal conditions on Mount
Wilson. Since the dimout of the Los
Angeles valley, however, the Observatory
enjoys again a perfectly dark sky except
for a trace of illumination close to the
southwestern horizon. As a result, direct
exposures with the reflectors on the fast
Eastman i03a-O plates, formerly limited to
about 45 minutes, can now be extended to
90 or 120 minutes. The corresponding
gain in limiting magnitude is best illus-
trated by some plates of the Andromeda
nebula which for the first time show the
hitherto unresolved inner part of the
nebula sprinkled with a multitude of faint
stars just below the twenty-first magnitude.

Spectroscopy

Spectra of 36 nebulae have been photo-
graphed by Humason during the year.
Most of these were taken on a small scale
(500 A/mm), but 8 are with a dispersion
of 220 A/mm and 2 of 65 A/mm.

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

The number of extragalactic nebulae
whose spectra have been photographed at
Mount Wilson now totals 406. Included
are practically all the brighter objects
within reach at Mount Wilson, and many
objects of types E and Sa which require
less exposure time than late-type nebulae.
It is planned to continue the Mount Wil-

son observations until 500 velocities have
been obtained. Additional observations
will necessarily be of fainter and later-type
nebulae, and these should make the collec-
tion as a whole a more homogeneous
group with respect to nebular type and
apparent brightness.

PHYSICAL LABORATORY

Rare-Earth Spectra

The spectrum of dysprosium from A2970
to A8280, given by the arc, spark, and elec-
tric furnace at various temperatures, has
been photographed by A. S. King. From
a study of these spectrograms 527 of the
stronger lines of Dy 11 have been identi-
fied. Since most of these lines appear at
the moderate excitation of the electric fur-
nace, they are presumably from low atomic
levels, and the list should include lines to
be expected in solar and stellar spectra.
Ninety-five lines having the most decided
low-level characteristics were compared by
Mrs. Sitterly with her revised solar data,
and 57 were identified in the solar spec-
trum. A temperature classification of the
rich spectrum of Dy 1 is now in progress.

Much progress has been made by Dr.
Russell in the term analysis of the spectra
of neutral and ionized gadolinium, an
element which is of considerable astro-
physical interest. Several hundreds of lines
have been classified according to energy
level.

Lines of two previously unrecognized
elements in the sun, ionized thorium and
neutral gold, were identified through co-
operative work of Mrs. Sitterly and A. S
King. For thorium, the necessary data in-
volved the photographing of arc and spark
spectra from A2750 to A7600 for the segre-
gation of Dy 1 and Dy 11 lines, and of the
furnace spectrum within the same range

for the selection of the more sensitive lines.
The observation by Babcock and Mrs.
Coffeen that the gold line A3123 is
strengthened in sunspot spectra supplied
confirmatory evidence that this element is
present in the sun.

Band Systems of CN

The violet and red band systems of CN,
the latter very prominent in N-type stars,
are being examined by A. S. King under a
wide variety of conditions in the electric
furnace. In emission, the red bands, as
compared with the violet system, show
relatively high intensity at low tempera-
ture. The conditions for their appearance
in absorption require further study.

Ruling Machines

The ruling machines have been adapted
by Babcock and Prall to the construction
of special kinds of gratings and to rela-
tively coarse spacing. Some of the work
has been for military purposes, but has
immediate application to the manufacture
of bright gratings. In particular, the micro-
scopic study of ruled surfaces has led to
better control of the intensity distribution
in the different orders, more especially the
first and second orders, which are used in
stellar spectrographs.

The data (see table) concerning the

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

brightness attained in some of the best
gratings are of interest. The results are for
the green region of the spectrum. Com-
parison with data collected by Baly shows
that the spectra from these gratings are as
bright as spectra of the same dispersion
formed by prisms.

Approximate
grating space

Order

Percentage of

incident light

in spectrum

Equivalent

number of

prisms*

1/600 mm
1/300 to 1/400

1 or 2
1

30 to 60
70

*Number of dense glass prisms with 60° refracting angle
having same mean dispersion as grating.

MAINTENANCE AND CONSTRUCTION

About 5 per cent of the time of the in-
strument shop and 3 per cent of the time of
the optical shop have been devoted to the
normal work of the Observatory. The
remainder has been given to the construc-
tion of optical instruments and optics for
the Office of Scientific Research and Devel-
opment, and for the Army. Most of the
instruments have been designed by Edgar
C. Nichols with the assistance of Harold S.
Kinney. Albert H. Mclntire has remained
in charge of the instrument shop, and on
the retirement of John S. Dalton the direc-
tion of the optical shop was assigned to
Donald O. Hendrix.

Very little new apparatus has been con-
structed during the year. An optical de-
vice for rotating the image at the Casse-
grain focus of the 100-inch telescope has
been designed and completed. It has
proved valuable in observations of several
nebulae, including the elliptical nebula

around Nova Herculis. For spectroscopic
observations the effect amounts to a rota-
tion of the slit.

Buildings and Grounds

Apart from essential repairs, painting,
and general maintenance, little construc-
tion has been done in Pasadena or on
Mount Wilson. The temporary closing of
the Observatory buildings to the general
public has reduced greatly the demands
upon the operating force on the mountain.
As a result, A. N. Beebe, superintendent of
construction, Sidney A. Jones and Kenneth
de HufT, engineers, and E. W. Hartong,
truck driver, have all been able to take part
in the production of military equipment in
the instrument shop in Pasadena.

A refrigerator for photographic plates
has been purchased and placed on the
ground floor of the dome of the 100-inch
telescope.

< THE LIBRARY

During the year, 198 volumes were foreign observatories and research institu-

added to the library, 91 by purchase, 41 by tions, and even those from America are

gift, and 66 by binding, making a total of materially reduced in number. Periodicals

15,055 volumes. Because of the war, only a received currently number 98, of which 30

few publications have come through from are gifts or exchanges.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, Walter S. The structure of interstellar
H and K lines in fifty stars. Astrophys. Jour.,
vol. 97, pp. 105-111 (1943); Mt. W. Contr.,
No. 673.

Survey of the year's work at Mount

Wilson. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 223-229
(1942).

— Interstellar lines in the brighter stars of
the Pleiades. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 106-
108 (1943).

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Adams, Walter S. Research at Mount Wilson
Observatory. Jour. R. A. S. Canada, vol. 36,

PP- 393-396 (1942).

See Merrill, Paul W.

Baade, Walter. The Crab nebula. Astrophys.
Jour., vol. 96, pp. 188-198 (1942); Mt. W.
Contr., No. 665.

Nova Ophiuchi of 1604 as a supernova.

Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97, pp. 1 19-127 (1943) ;
Mt. W. Contr., No. 675.

The expanding shell around Nova Her-

culis. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 244-249
(1942).

Periodic comet Wolf I. Pubs. A. S. P.,

vol. 54, pp. 259-260 (1942).

Photographic observations of (944) Hi-
dalgo at the Mount Wilson Observatory.
Astron. Jour., vol. 50, p. 141 (1943).

Photographic observations of comet Wolf

— The spectrum of UZ Tauri in 1942. Pubs.
A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 38-39 (1943).

A century's progress in determining

I made with the 100-inch reflector at the
Mount Wilson Observatory. Astron. Jour.,
vol. 50, p. 142 (1943).
Babcock, Harold D. Visibility of a hot body.
Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 149-150 (1943).

and Mary F. Coffeen. Gold in the sun.

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, p. in (1943).

Christie, W. H. (Review) The practical essen-
tials of pre-training navigation, by William
T. Skilling and Robert S. Richardson. Pubs.
A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 271-272 (1942).

Coffeen, Mary F. See Babcock, Harold D.

Connor, Elizabeth. Abraham Sharp, 1653-1742.
Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 237-243 (1942).

Davis, Dorothy N. A search for thorium in
late-type stars. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp.
41-42 (1943).

Hubble, Edwin. The direction of rotation in
spiral nebulae. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97,
pp. 112-118 (1943); Mt. W. Contr., No. 674.

The problem of the expanding universe.

Science in progress, 3d ser., pp. 22-44. Yale
Univ. Press (1942).

The problem of the expanding universe.

Sci. Monthly, vol. 56, pp. 15-30 (1943).
Humason, M. L. Spectrographic observations of

the nebula surrounding Nova Herculis 1934.

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 74-78 (1943).
and Roscoe F. Sanford. Nova Puppis

1942. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 256-257

(1942).
Joy, Alfred H. A survey of the spectra and

radial velocities of the less regular M-type

variable stars. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 96, pp.

344-370 (1942); Mt. W. Contr., No. 668.

stellar distances. A. S. P. Leaflet, No. 173.

8 pp. (1943).
Karr, Earl. See Sanford, Roscoe F.
King, Arthur S. Temperature classification of

gadolinium lines. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97,

pp. 323-380 (1943) ; Mt. W. Contr., No. 678.

Note concerning lines of neutral dyspro-
sium. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 201-202
(1942).

The laboratory's part in astronomy. A. S.

P. Leaflet, No. 162. 8 pp. (1942).

and Charlotte E. Moore. The stronger

lines of singly ionized dysprosium and
identifications in the solar spectrum. As-
trophys. Jour., vol. 98, pp. 33-42 (1943);
Mt. W. Contr., No. 681.

See Moore, Charlotte E.

Merrill, Paul W. A star with a rapidly ex-
panding hydrogen atmosphere. Pubs. A. S.
P., vol. 55, pp. 40-41 (1943).

Stars with expanding atmospheres.

A. S. P. Leaflet, No. 170. 8 pp. (1943).

and Walter S. Adams. Measurements

of the spectrum of t Scorpii. Astrophys.
Jour., vol. 97, pp. 98-104 (1943); Mt. W.
Contr., No. 672.
Minkowski, R. The Crab nebula. Astrophys.
Jour., vol. 96, pp. 199-213 (1942); Mt. W.
Contr., No. 666.

The spectrum of the nebulosity near

Kepler's nova of 1604. Astrophys. Jour., vol.
97, pp. 128-129 (1943); Mt. W. Contr.,
No. 676.

The origin of cometary nebulae. Pubs.

A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 190-194 (1942).

(Review) Principles of stellar dynamics,

by S. Chandrasekhar. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54,
pp. 209-210 (1942).

The spectrum of comet Whipple 2

(19421). Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 87-91

(i943)-

Nova T Coronae Borealis. Pubs. A. S. P.,

vol. 55, pp. 101-103 (1943)-

Moore, Charlotte E., and Arthur S. King.

Thorium in the sun. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55,

PP- 36-37 (i943)-
The presence of gold in the sun.

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 109-110 (1943).
Thorium in the sun. Proc. Amer.

Philos. Soc, vol. 86, pp. 339-341 (1943).
— See King, Arthur S.

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY

Mulders, Elizabeth Sternberg. Sunspot activity
during 1942. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp.

21-23 (i943)-

See Nicholson, Seth B.

Nicholson, Seth B. The ninth satellite of

Jupiter. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, p. 258 (1942).

Alexander F. Morrison lecture: The sun

in action. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 5-13

(i943)-
and Elizabeth Sternberg Mulders. Solar

and magnetic data, April, 1942, to March,

1943. Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 268-269, 334-

335 (1942); vol. 48, pp. 17-18, 115-116

(i943)-

and Myrtle L. Richmond. The position

of Nova Puppis 1942. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55,

PP- 37-38 (1943)-
Nova Cygni 1942. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, p. 206

(1942).
Pettit, Edison. The properties of solar promi-
nences as related to type. Astrophys. Jour.,
vol. 98, pp. 6-19 (1943); Mt. W. Contr.,
No. 679.

The eruptive prominence of October 3,

1942. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 253-255
(1942).

Visual magnitudes of Nova Puppis 1942.

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, p. 259 (1942) ; vol. 55,
pp. 14-20, 108-109 (1943)-

Light-curve of Nova Puppis 1942. Pubs.

A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 152-156 (1943)-

The development of solar prominences.

Sci. Monthly, vol. 56, pp. 293-294 (1943).

(Review) Annals of the Astrophysical

Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution,
vol. 6. Pop. Astron., vol. 50, pp. 403-405
(1942).
Richardson, Robert S. (Review) Great astro-
nomical treatises of the past, by Edgar W.
Woolard. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 210-21 1
(1942).

Aspect of the heavens for March and

April, 1943. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 24-

25 (i943)-

Captain Thomas Hubbard Sumner, 1807-

1876. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 136-144

(i943)-

(Review) Egyptian planetary texts, by

O. Neugebauer. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55,
pp. 167-168 (1943)-

Celestial target practise. A. S. P. Leaflet,

Richmond, Myrtle L. Ephemeris of Jupiter's
ninth satellite. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, p. 205
(1942).

See Nicholson, Seth B.

Russell, Henry Norris. Physical characteristics
of stellar companions of small mass. Pubs.
A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 79-86 (1943).

The orbit of 70 Ophiuchi. Pubs. A. S. P.,

vol. 55, pp. 104-106 (1943).

Sanford, Roscoe F. The spectrum of Nova
Cygni 1942. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97, pp.
130-134 (1943); Mt. W. Contr., No. 677.

The spectrum of Nova Cygni 1942. Pubs.

A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 255-256 (1942).

Interstellar sodium lines in stars of classes

R and N. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 257-
258 (1942).

The spectrum of Nova Puppis 1942.

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 55, pp. 103-104 (1943).

and Earl Karr. The spectroscopic bina-
ries Z1669A and Z1669B. Astrophys. Jour.,
vol. 96, pp. 214-217 (1942); Mt. W. Contr.,
No. 667.

See Humason, M. L.

No. 168. 8 pp. (1943).
— See Skilling, William T.

Seyfert, Carl K. Nuclear emission in spiral
nebulae. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97, pp. 28-40
(1943); Mt. W. Contr., No. 671.

The distribution of luminosity in the

planetary nebula NGC 6572. Pubs. A. S. P.,
vol. 55, pp. 32-34 (1943).

Sitterly, Charlotte M. See Moore, Char-
lotte E.

Skilling, William T., and Robert S. Richard-
son. The practical essentials of pre-training
navigation. 113 pp. New York, Holt (1942).

Stebbins, Joel, and A. E. Whitford. Six-color
photometry of stars. I. The law of space-
reddening from the colors of O and B stars.
Astrophys. Jour., vol. 98, pp. 20-32 (1943);
Mt. W. Contr., No. 680.

See Whitford, A. E.

Stromberg, Gustaf. (Review) From Copernicus
to Einstein, by Hans Reichenbach. Pubs.
A. S. P., vol. 54, p. 212 (1942).

Coherence in the physical world.

Philosophy of Science, vol. 9, pp. 323-334
(1942).

Summary of Mount Wilson magnetic observa-
tions of sunspots for June, 1942, to April,
1943. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 54, pp. 207-208,
266-268 (1942); vol. 55, pp. 42-44, 112-113,

I57-J59 (i943)-

22 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

van Maanen, Adriaan. Investigations on proper Whitford, A. E., and Joel Stebbins. The law

motion. XXII. The proper motion of the G f interstellar absorption. Pubs. A. A. S.,

open cluster Messier 67. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 10, p. 263 (1942).
vol. 96, pp. 382-394 (1942); Mt. W. Contr.,

No. 670. See Stebbins > J° el -

Stellar parallaxes from photographs taken Wilson, Ralph E. Mean absolute magnitudes

with the 60- and 100-inch reflectors of the and space motions of the irregular variable

Mount Wilson Observatory. Astron. Jour., stars. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 96, pp. 371-381

vol. 50, pp. 41-42 (1942). (1942); Mt. W. Contr., No. 669.

SPECIAL PROJECTS: ASTRONOMY

Dirk Brouwer, Yale University Observatory, New Haven, Connecticut. Program for
the determination of systematic corrections to fundamental catalogues from observa-
tions of minor planets. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 40 and 41.)

The number of plates obtained for this gram of integration was so far advanced

program during the year was 613, of which before the Computing Bureau was changed

236 were secured at the Yale Southern over to wartime operation. Otherwise the

Station in Johannesburg, 192 at New task of keeping up the integrations for

Haven, and 185 at the Allegheny Ob- the preparation of current ephemerides

servatory of the University of Pittsburgh, might have been too heavy for the Ob-

The number of plates measured during servatory.

the year was 222, of which 78 were meas- Dr. Land has nearly completed a dis-

ured by Miss Ruth Huff and 144 by Dr. cussion of the observations of (57) Mne-

Gustav Land. mosyne.

The number of measured plates is con- The asteroid program is intimately con-
siderably lower than last year. This de- nected with the zone catalogue program of
crease is entirely due to the impossibility Yale Observatory, since the star positions
of making regular shipments of plates from obtained in the zone catalogue program are
South Africa, and to the depletion of the used in the reduction of the photographic
star? of assistants at the Yale Observatory positions of the asteroids. Volumes 13 and
because of their employment elsewhere. 14 of the Transactions of the Astronomical

The Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Observatory in Yale University were pub-
Computing Bureau has 'been occupied to lished in June 1943. They contain the posi-
full capacity on war projects, and therefore tions and proper motions of 28,857 stars
could not undertake any of the compu- between declinations 20 ° and 30 ° south,
tations that they would have performed Approximately 60 per cent of the total
for this program in normal circumstances, number of stars in the zone catalogue
This necessitated the computation at Yale program between declinations 30 ° north
Observatory of numerical integrations of and 30 ° south have now appeared in
three planets. It is fortunate that the pro- printed catalogues.

S. A. Mitchell, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Astronomical studies
at the Leander McCormic\ Observatory. (For previous reports see Year Books
Nos. 38 to 41.)

It is a most curious fact that in the pared with the outer part. In our own

present state of astronomical investigation galaxy we are confused by the presence

we know more concerning the general of multitudes of faint near-by stars, and

structure of certain external galaxies than by clouds of interstellar dust which blot

we know about our own Milky Way out many parts of the Milky Way, includ-

system. In an external galaxy well situated ing much of the most interesting region of

and not too distant, we can see at a glance all, the nucleus.

where the condensations lie and just how Two contributions toward the eventual

large and bright is the nucleus when com- clarification of our own galactic structure

2 3

2 , CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

have been made at this observatory dur- has hitherto been supposed. Also it seems

ing the year. A study of the motions of 82 that the relatively rare red giants constitute

dwarf M stars, discovered by the charac- a separate system of their own. This is in

teristic appearance of their spectra on plates line with current astrophysical conjectures

taken with the 10-inch Cooke prismatic as to the different origin of giants and

camera, reveals that their average velocity main-sequence stars.

in space is considerably smaller than pre- Continuing his search for invisible com-

viously had been supposed. It now appears panions of dwarf M emission stars, Dr.

that the mean kinetic energy of the dwarf Dirk Reuyl has made a careful discussion

M stars is about equal to that of the A-type of the McCormick photographs of Cin-

stars. This fact suggests that equipartition cinnati 1244, first reported on briefly two

of energy may obtain among all main- years ago. From 109 plates spread over

sequence stars. the years from 1915 to 1942, he found a

An interesting confirmation of this hy- faint companion with a mass of only three-
pothesis has been found in the spectral hundredths of that of the sun. The period,
statistics of the second McCormick general tentatively fixed at 26.5 years, will be re-
proper motion program, now nearing com- vised by the help of future observations,
pletion. Thus it seems certain that the ap- In last year's report (Year Book No. 41)
parent distribution of stars of the main Drs. Reuyl and Holmberg described a third
sequence perpendicular to the galactic body in the system of 70 Ophiuchi with the
plane is just about what might be ex- very diminutive mass of one-hundredth that
pected on the assumption that the stars of the sun. These two tiny stars found at
behave like molecules in an isothermal the McCormick Observatory are of smaller
atmosphere. The relatively massive A stars mass than the third object in the system
are highly concentrated toward the galactic of 61 Cygni, which has a mass one-sixtieth
plane, while the somewhat less massive F of that of the sun, and was announced by
stars at the same distance are less concen- Strand of Swarthmore as "planetary" on
trated, and the degree of concentration account of the similarity to the mass of
closely approximates that predicted from Jupiter. Apart from the bodies in our own
the kinetic theory. Further confirmation solar system, these three celestial objects
of the same sort was found in the Berge- are the only ones yet known that have
dorf spectral statistics, which extend to masses less than one-tenth of the solar mass,
fainter stars than can be investigated from Henry Norris Russell has investigated
the McCormick spectra. It appears that the the probable physical characteristics of such
thirteenth-magnitude G stars, the great ma- a small celestial body in orbital motion
jority of which belong to the main se- around a more massive primary. He con-
quence, concentrate rather less than the F eludes that in internal constitution the ob-
stars at the same distance, in fact, just ject of small mass is probably more similar
about as would be expected as a resultant to a star than to any of the planets in the
of their smaller average mass. solar system. However, he argues, since at

Stars of the giant branch, on the other most it is only feebly self-luminous and

hand, have much larger kinetic energies must shine mainly by reflected light, it is

and correspondingly smaller galactic con- within the bounds of accepted usage to

centration. It seems to follow that the call these small objects "planets."

galactic star clouds must be composed of Visitors to the observatory during the

a much higher percentage of dwarfs than year included Miss Edith M. Janssen, of

SPECIAL PROJECTS: ASTRONOMY

Vassar College, and Dr. P. C. Keenan,
both of whom made investigations with
the spectra obtained by the Cooke pris-
matic camera. In the summer of 1943, Dr.
Mitchell was given the use of the 60-inch
reflector at Mount Wilson Observatory in
order to obtain radial velocities from
spectra of tenth-magnitude A and K stars
included in the second McCormick proper
motion program.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Holmberg, Erik. A determination of the mass
ratios and parallaxes of Castor and 70
Ophiuchi. Astron. Jour., vol. 50, p. 100
(i943).

Reuyl, Dirk. Trigonometric parallaxes of fifty
stars. Astron. Jour., vol. 50, p. 117 (1943).

The variable proper motion of Cincinnati

1244. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97, p. 186 (1943).

and Erik Holmberg. On the existence of

a third component in the system of 70
Ophiuchi. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97, p. 41

(i943)-

Vyssotsky, A. N. Dwarf M stars found spectro-
photometrically. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 97,

P- 381 (i943)-
and Emma T. R. Williams. McCormick

spectral statistics. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 98,

p. 185 (1943).
Galactic structure and kinetic

theory. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 98, p. 187

(i943)-

GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY

Washington, District of Columbia
L. H. ADAMS, Director

As was stated in the previous annual
report, the customary activities of the
Laboratory have been discontinued, and all
space and facilities have been applied to a
variety of investigations aimed at the de-
velopment of improved devices of warfare
and including both fundamental research
and the application of basic principles.
This work is being carried out under the
auspices of the National Defense Research
Committee of the Office of Scientific Re-
search and Development, under contracts
between the Institution and the OSRD.
The investigations utilize the full-time
services of all the regular personnel of
the Laboratory, except five staff members
who have taken important assignments
in other government activities directly
related to the war effort. The Laboratory
building also houses a governmental office,
namely that of NDRC's Division One,
which has supervision over an extensive

and closely coordinated series of investiga-
tions, of which those under one of the
Laboratory's contracts are a part.

The situation continues as reported last
year, the principal difference being an ex-
pansion of the program. About 50 addi-
tional employees, including scientific in-
vestigators, technicians, and office workers,
have been engaged at the Laboratory, on
a temporary basis, for the purpose of carry-
ing forward the investigations with all
possible speed. The particular items of re-
search and development have been under-
taken for the most part at the direct request
of the Army and Navy and in close
cooperation with these agencies.

During the past year it was found prac-
ticable to put in final form for publica-
tion a few articles dealing with the pre-
vious work of the Laboratory. Abstracts
of these papers follow.

SUMMARY OF PUBLISHED WORK

(1072) A review of "X-ray crystallography, an
introduction to the investigation of crys-
tals by their diffraction of monochro-
matic X-radiation," by M. J. Buerger.
George Tunell. Amer. Mineralogist, vol.
27, pp. 780-781 (1942).

Professor Buerger's book is devoted to the
geometry of the space patterns in crystals; it
thus deals with the crystal class, the space
lattice (its type and dimensions), and the
space group, and will be very useful to all
those having to investigate crystals with
X-rays.

The moving-film methods, which permit
the straightforward determination of the geo-
metric properties mentioned above, occupy the
largest part of the book. They include the

Weissenberg method, the Sauter method,
the Schiebold method, and the Dejong and
Bouman method. The earlier rotation and os-
cillation methods are also discussed in detail.
The equi-inclination Weissenberg method
receives the largest amount of space devoted
to any one method; the reviewer considers
this to be in keeping with its comparative
utility. In a section entitled "Advantages of
taking Weissenberg photographs by the
equi-inclination method," Professor Buerger
writes: "It is uniquely possible for the equi-
inclination method to record central lattice
rows as straight lines, and thus permit easy
reconstruction of the reciprocal lattice, and
also, more generally, to record the lattice rows
of all layers as curves of similar shape, and

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

consequently permit indexing directly on the
film." These important advantages of the
equi-inclination method he discovered several
years ago. Additional advantages of the equi-
inclination Weissenberg method over the
methods involving perpendicular incidence
might well have been mentioned explicitly at
this point; for example, with the equi-inclina-
tion method there is no blind area around the
rotation axis in any reciprocal lattice layer,
so that no planes of low indices fail to register
on the diffraction photographs. (Analysis of
intensities is left outside the scope of the book,
but since some mention is made of intensity
factors it may be noted in passing that it has
been shown by the reviewer that the equi-
inclination method has equally important ad-
vantages in respect to the intensities of the
diffraction spots.) Besides the chapters deal-
ing with experimental methods, others are
devoted to the following topics: Some geo-
metrical aspects of lattices; the diffraction of
X-rays by crystals; space-group extinctions;
the reciprocal lattice; geometrical interpreta-
tion of Bragg's Law — application of the re-
ciprocal lattice* to the solution of X-ray dif-
fraction problems; the geometry of oblique
cells and their reciprocals; the experimental
determination of the lattice constants belong-
ing to the oblique systems; the theory of
attaining precision in the determination of
lattice constants; the precision determination
of the linear and angular lattice constants of
single crystals; the theory and interpretation
of reciprocal lattice projections.

(1073) A graph for determining angle and direc-
tion of pitch of lineations in the field.
Earl Ingerson and O. F. Tuttle. Amer.
Mineralogist, vol. 28, pp. 209-210 (1943).

When no lineation compass is available,
the direction and angle of pitch can be
determined from the dip and strike of the
i'-plane containing the lineation, and the angle
that it makes with the strike of the j"-plane,
measured in that plane. Use of a prepared
graph, such as is described here, requires
less equipment than making a constructional
solution for each determination with a stereo-

graphic or a gnomonic projection, or by de-
scriptive geometry. Furthermore, it is faster
and just as accurate.

(1074) Solubility of solids in water vapor.
George W. Morey. Proc. Amer. Soc.
Testing Materials, vol. 42, pp. 980—988
(1942).

A discussion of the theory underlying the
solubility of solids in steam under high pres-
sure, with special reference to those systems
of interest in the control of deposits in high-
pressure boilers and turbines.

(1075) Iridescent garnet from the Adelaide Min-
ing District, Nevada. Earl Ingerson and
Julian D. Barksdale. Amer. Mineralogist,
vol. 28, pp. 303-312 (1943).

Garnets from a lime-rich layer in the con-
tact zone of a granodiorite stock near Gol-
conda, Nevada, show brilliant iridescence
both on striated crystal faces and in thin
section. They have a birefringence a little
more than a third of that shown by ortho-
clase (0.0025 ±)j and show, superposed on
the triangular segments that are common in
lime-contact garnets, lamellae that look like
polysynthetic twinning. Universal-stage meas-
urements show that the lamellae are parallel
to (no) and (in). It appears that the
iridescence is due to the very fine (in) lamel-
lae and that it is more intense where the
individual lamellae are finer. Sections of
the garnets heated in a furnace show a de-
crease in birefringence beginning at about
1060 C and continuing practically to the
melting point, just below 1250 C. In thin
sections that have been heated almost to the
melting point (1225 C) the birefringence
is very low, but the twinning lamellae and
iridescence are still visible.

(1076) Preparation and properties of some com-
pounds in the system H 2 — Na 2 — P 2 5 .
Earl Ingerson and George W. Morey.
Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 28, pp. 448-455

(i943)-

Optical properties of all known compounds
of Na 2 and P 2 5 , both hydrous and anhy-

GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY

2 9

drous, are given. For eight of these the data
are taken entirely from the literature; eight
have been restudied; five are here described
optically for the first time. Crystallographic
and density data are given for some of them.
The methods of preparing twelve of these
compounds are given; and for the others,
methods can be obtained from the literature
cited. The nomenclature of these phosphates
is discussed. Refractive indices are given for
eleven glasses in the system NaP0 3 —
Na 4 P 2 7 .

(1077) The compound merwinite (3CaO . MgO .
2Si0 2 ) and its stability relations within

the system CaO — MgO — SiOo. (Prelimi-
nary report.) E. F. Osborn. Jour. Amer.
Ceram. Soc, vol. 26, pp. 321-332 (1943).

Preliminary investigations on composi-
tions between Ca 2 Si0 4 and akermanite
(Ca 2 MgSi 2 7 ), between merwinite (Ca : ,Mg-
(Si0 4 ) 2 ) and akermanite, and between mer-
winite and monticellite (CaMgSi0 4 ) show
that a field of merwinite appears on the
liquidus surface of the system CaO — MgO —
Si0 2 and that merwinite melts incongruently
at 1575 ° C to Ca 2 Si0 4 , MgO, and liquid.

(1078) Annual Report for 1942-1943.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barksdale, ]. D. See Ingerson, E.

Ingerson, E., and J. D. Barksdale. Iridescent
garnet from the Adelaide Mining District,
Nevada. Amer. Mineralogist, vol. 28, pp.
303-312 (1943).

and G. W. Morey. Preparation and

properties of some compounds in the sys-
tem H 2 — Na 2 — P 2 5 . Amer. Mineralo-
gist, vol. 28, pp. 44M55 (i943)-

and O. F. Tuttle. A graph for deter-

mining angle and direction of pitch of
lineations in the field. Amer. Mineralogist,
vol. 28, pp. 209-210 (1943).
Morey, G. W. Solubility of solids in water vapor.

Proc. Amer. Soc. Testing Materials, vol. 42,
pp. 980-988 (1942).
— See Ingerson, E.

Osborn, E. F. The compound merwinite
(3CaO . MgO . 2Si0 2 ) and its stability rela-
tions within the system CaO — MgO — Si0 2 .
(Preliminary report.) Jour. Amer. Ceram.
Soc, vol. 26, pp. 321-332 (1943).

Tunell, G. A review of "X-ray crystallography,
an introduction to the investigation of crys-
tals by their diffraction of monochromatic
X-radiation," by M. J. Buerger. Amer. Min-
eralogist, vol. 27, pp. 780-781 (1942).

Tuttle, O. F. See Ingerson, E.

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

Washington, District of Columbia
JOHN A. FLEMING, Director

SUMMARY

The retarding effect of the war on the
progress of geophysical research, indicated
in last year's report, has continued to influ-
ence progress in geomagnetism and geo-
electricity during this report-year, July i,
1942 to June 30, 1943. Difficulties of com-
munication between countries have in-
creased, and scientific investigations have
been largely turned toward developments
more nearly connected with the require-
ments of modern warfare. Fortunately,
many established organizations and observ-
atories have found it possible to main-
tain at least part, if not all, of their pro-
grams, so that the loss of continuity in
accumulating data is not too serious. Un-
fortunately, the war does prevent cruising
of the British Admiralty magnetic-survey
vessel Research, and the resulting inability
to obtain additional data over the oceans,
to determine the important changes with
the years in the geomagnetic elements, is
most serious— the more so because of the
need for these data in maintaining iso-
magnetic charts, so vital for purposes of
navigation, defense, and offense.

It is gratifying that use in the emergency
is constantly growing for work done since
the initiation of the Department in 1904.
The past year has emphasized particularly
the increasing importance of the observa-
tories. At least 95 per cent of the services
of personnel and all the laboratory, shop,
observatory, and building facilities of the
Department were devoted to investigations
and solutions of war problems. Though
this apparently has hampered the continua-
tion of the regular program, many of the

results obtained in connection with special
war problems are of great peacetime value.
As in previous years during the war, and
in conformity with the action of the Trus-
tees, the services of the regular scientific
and administrative personnel and the use
of facilities have been contributed without
charge to the government. These services
during the report-year totaled over 34,400
hours for the scientific staff and over 4800
for the administrative staff; the corre-
sponding totals for the whole period of the
emergency since August 1940 were 91,000
and 16,600 respectively. In addition, the
personnel of the Watheroo, Huancayo,
and College observatories were engaged in
work proving of great use in the war effort.
Twelve of the regular and temporary scien-
tific personnel were on leave of absence in
war activities on June 30, 1943. The De-
partment was engaged on ten nonprofit
contracts with the Army, Navy, and Office
of Scientific Research and Development, on
urgent projects. To assist in the develop-
ment of these projects, additional pro-
fessional, computing, and clerical assistants
were engaged. The maximum number of
the staff during the year was 247. Thanks
must again be extended for the generous
action of universities and industrial or-
ganizations in granting leaves of absence
and extending technical advice, as well as
to many Selective Service boards for grant-
ing deferments of professionally trained
men.

Review of Year's Progress

Cosmic relations. Cosmic data were as-
sembled and analyzed (1) to increase the

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

understanding of solar, geomagnetic, and
ionospheric relationships, and (2) to im-
prove the technique of short-term fore-
casting of ionospheric disturbances. Elec-
tron-density in the ionospheric regions has
continued to diminish as the minimum of
the 11-year cycle of activity approaches.
Some magnetic and ionospheric disturb-
ances occurred, and the isolation of solar
regions responsible for terrestrial disturb-
ances was simplified by the reduced solar
activity. Solar corona of high intensity
and observed activity in flocculi on the
disk were found apparently the most prom-
ising criteria for anticipation of magnetic
disturbances. The beginning of the new
sunspot-cycle indicates an early increase of
solar, magnetic, and ionospheric activity.
Ionospheric absorption, sporadic E-region
ionization, aurora, and magnetic bays and
character-figures were found to be related
in fairly definite ways, in most cases ap-
proximating direct proportionality. Meth-
ods of obtaining accurate visual records of
magnetic phenomena were developed, and
one visually recording instrument was con-
structed. Useful operational material re-
garding ionospheric disturbances affecting
radio circuits was supplied to the Army
and Navy.

Geomagnetic investigations. Tables of
the changes in annual mean value of the
geomagnetic field with sunspot-cycle, the
average annual variations, daily post-per-
turbations, and average solar daily varia-
tion for the 38-year period from 1905 to
1942 were nearly completed. A world-chart
of magnetic vertical intensity was con-
structed. Instruments for the measure-
ment of short-period magnetic fluctuations
were designed, constructed, and placed in
operation.

A visually recording magnetograph was
developed. The development of a portable
magnetograph well suited for field-use was
begun. A magnetic variometer of universal

pattern was designed and constructed, in-
corporating a valuable improvement in the
detecting element for vertical intensity, and
suited to the making of measurements on
a moving platform such as is available
aboard ship.

It was found from theory that for geo-
magnetic fluctuations of periods of order
50 seconds, only slight magnetic shielding
is furnished by the first few hundred
meters of sea-water. A practical formula
for prediction of geophysical time-series
was evolved.

Terrestrial electricity. Improvements
were made in methods and instruments for
measuring the rate of ionization. The
technique of preparing quartz suspension-
systems for sensitive instruments was
improved.

Further analyses of data obtained at the
observatories, particularly Watheroo, led
to more satisfactory interpretations of sev-
eral characteristic aspects of atmospheric
electricity at specific stations. Study of
observed variation with wind-velocity of
the atmospheric-electric elements at Wath-
eroo has improved understanding of effects
of smoke distributed in the atmosphere.
Evidence was obtained from discussions
of atmospheric-electric data at Watheroo
confirming the hypothesis that radioactive
matter accumulates in the lower air dur-
ing times of calm and is mixed with the
higher layers of air during times of higher
wind-velocity.

The theory and limitations of the use
of the columnar resistance of the atmos-
phere were examined and methods of anal-
ysis improved; interpretations previously
made of some atmospheric-electric phe-
nomena in terms of columnar resistance
of the atmosphere were placed on a better
foundation, and in some cases modified or
extended.

It was estimated from experimental in-
vestigations that the particles in exhaled

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ^

breath — presumably the chief factor in re- Alaska, in July 1941 was maintained in
during the electrical conductivity of the full operation. Special studies relating to
air in occupied rooms — are much larger ionospheric problems were made by the
than the ordinary nuclei of condensation, Observatory's staff, and charts showing
being 3X10 4 times the size of the large graphically the systematic diurnal and
ion of the atmosphere; this fact may ac- seasonal changes occurring in the trans-
count for the failure of some investigators mission-characteristics of the ionosphere
to detect these particles. were prepared.

Ionosphere. The value of the ionospheric The extensive geophysical programs at
program undertaken by the Department Huancayo and Watheroo magnetic ob-
some eight years ago was emphasized by servatories were continued, and all result-
urgent need of particulars regarding the ing data were promptly communicated
relations of ionospheric variations and dis- and made available for emergency use.
turbances. Many confidential studies for Because of commercial requirements, it
operational application were made, and was necessary to end early in 1943 the
the results from the Watheroo, Huancayo, long series of earth-current records ob-
and College observatories were advan- tained at the Tucson Magnetic Observa-
tageously used in these. The Department tory, a series made possible by cooperation
was asked to establish additional stations, with the American Telephone and Tele-
and arrangements were made for these to graph Company, the Mountain States Tele-
begin operation within a few months — a phone and Telegraph Company, and the
considerable task as regards equipment, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
obtaining and training of observers, and Cooperation with the Survey in the at-
housing. mospheric-electric program was continued.

Nuclear physics. The demands of the Maintenance of international magnetic

emergency for personnel restricted theo- standards at the Cheltenham Magnetic

retical work in nuclear physics. The need Observatory of the United States Coast

for an operating cyclotron in the region and Geodetic Survey was effected through

of Washington to meet certain war re- the Division of Geomagnetism and Seis-

quirements became more pressing, and mology of the Survey,

all efforts of the few members of staff Though no field-work other than at the

available in laboratory and shop were observatories could be undertaken, it was

concentrated on completing the equipment possible to assist various governments,

for actual use. Excellent progress was through loans of magnetic instruments, in

made, and preliminary tests indicated satis- undertaking new magnetic surveys and

factory operation within the year. The obtaining repeat-observations at established

continued cooperation of the National stations.

Cancer Institute, in continuing the assign- Miscellaneous. The Department was for-

ment of Physicist D. B. Cowie of its staff, tunate in having on active duty three of

and of the Naval Research Center must its retired staff — }. W. Green, A. Smith,

be credited with a large measure of the and W. F. Wallis — whose services were of

progress made. great value in the emergency.

Observatory- and field-wor\. The com- Philip E. Brooke, who so faithfully

plete magnetic, auroral, and ionospheric served as caretaker and night watchman

observatory established in collaboration for 25 years, retired from active duty on

with the University of Alaska at College, March 31, 1943.
6

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

INVESTIGATIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

Those of the regular staff engaged at
Washington on investigations and experi-
ments in geomagnetism were Fleming,
J. W. Green, Johnston, Miss Lange,
McNish, Scott, Torreson, Vestine, Wal-
lis, and Wells; Shapley, of the tempor-
ary staff, made substantial contributions.
McNish gave all his time to supervision
of temporary employees engaged on war
research for the National Defense Re-
search Committee. Torreson was on leave
with the Office of Scientific Research and
Development; the others named averaged
at least 95 per cent of their time on mat-
ters directly or indirectly related to the
war effort. Many of these matters had to
do with instrumental techniques and theo-
retical investigations of first importance
to geomagnetism. A certain amount of
other research was accomplished and is
reported below.

Permanent Field

The study of methods of analyzing and
interpreting the geomagnetic field was con-
tinued. Data on magnetic anomalies in
various parts of the world were compiled
for determining their relation to geological
formations. An isodynamic world-chart of
vertical intensity for epoch 1940 was pre-
pared. Isoporic charts of recent epoch
were found regionally to show great
changes in form from those prepared by
the Department for epoch 1922. A simple
method for prediction and extrapolation
of certain types of geophysical time-series
was evolved.

The average monthly values for all
available stations of the solar daily mag-
netic variation on quiet days, S q , were
derived for the mean of the 12 years from
1922 to 1933. Detailed examination was
made of the daily variability of the cur-

rent-system for S q with reference to the
effect of this variability on the reduction of
field-observations to , mean of day. An
anomalous condition in S q similar to that at
Huancayo in the Western Hemisphere,
though less marked, was found to exist at
Manila in the Eastern Hemisphere. The
phase of S q was determined to be prac-
tically independent of the amplitude of S q ,
apart from seasonal influences.

Daily, weekly, monthly, and annual
ranges in the geomagnetic elements in any
latitude were derived, and the probabilities
of ranges of various magnitudes deduced.
An extensive study was made of recorded
frequencies and magnitudes of geomag-
netic fluctuations with durations of ten
seconds to several hours. It was found
that equipment heretofore generally used
at observatories is adequate for detecting
fluctuations of durations greater than ten
seconds.

The reductions and discussions of the
magnetic data obtained by the United
States Antarctic Expedition of 1939— 1941
were completed, and the manuscript was
prepared at the Department by Fitzsim-
mons, magnetic observer of the Expedition,
and forwarded for publication to the
United States Department of the Interior.

Magnetic Disturbances and Cosmic
Relations

The latitude-distribution in amplitude
and phase of the yearly changes in the
annual means of geomagnetic elements
with sunspot-cycle was determined and
estimated for each year from 1905 to 1940.
A similar derivation was made for all
latitudes for the annual variation and post-
perturbation. Estimates were made of the
induced currents flowing in the oceans due
to short-period geomagnetic fluctuations.

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ^

A group of professional associate work- ridian of date, (6) average intensity, C, of

ers, under the supervision of Vestine and the green coronal line referred to the

Miss Lange with the assistance of others central meridian, and (7) transmission-

of the regular staff, especially Johnston disturbance figures, TD. The solar data

and Scott, compiled data on the frequen- are not homogeneous because of differences

cies of geomagnetic fluctuations of various in observing conditions; the resulting

amplitudes and durations and on the re- graphs are similar at many times but differ

duction of geomagnetic data to epoch. conspicuously in detail. Many instances of

Magnetic activity during the report-year nearly simultaneous features are evident,
showed recurrence-tendencies of disturbed the best being at about November 2, 1942;
and quiet periods. The tendency for mag- others are August 23, September 18, No-
netic disturbances to recur at intervals of vember 29, December 26, 1942, and March
about 27 days was very pronounced with 23, April 6, April 21, and May 17, 1943.
the smaller storms during this period of There are, however, as many more cases
minimum solar activity. One storm-se- where magnetic disturbances had no ob-
quence started on July 14-16, 1942, and vious solar cause, and cases where solar
reached its maximum on October 28—31 activity had no magnetic counterpart,
with the severest storm of the report-year. Magnetic activity and properties of the
It later divided into two disturbances ionosphere parallel roughly the 11 -year
spaced several days apart, and was traced solar-activity cycle. The last minimum in
into March 1943. The disturbed period that cycle occurred in 1933 and another
August 16—27 recurred in .September and minimum is due between 1943 and 1945.
again in October. Another disturbed pe- It is of considerable practical value to the
riod, centered about April 3, repeated field of communications to foretell the
itself in the succeeding three cycles. Dur- minimum and hence the time when an
ing the year there was a high percentage increase in solar and geomagnetic activity
of disturbed days, but no really large may be expected. Progress of the activity-
storms. The previous 12-month period had cycle was compared with the magnetic
three storms of greater intensity than the index u (smoothed), and with average
one of October 29, 1942, but there were maximum critical frequency of the F 2 -
14 per cent more days appreciably dis- layer (o9 h , 75 ° west meridian time) at
turbed in 1942-1943 than in 1941-1942. Huancayo. The parallelism of critical fre-
Thus, rather than by severe magnetic quency, which is proportional to the square
storms with their spectacular effects, the root of electron-density, with sunspot-num-
past year was characterized by mild dis- ber was much closer than that of either
turbances during a relatively high per- factor with the magnetic-index curve, and
centage of the time. suggests the preferability of ionospheric

General comparison and discussion were measurements as direct indicators of ter-
made of the following geomagnetic and restrial effects of sunspot-activity.
solar phenomena during July 1, 1942 to Radio "blackouts" in polar regions are
June 30, 1943: (1) American magnetic found to occur during magnetic bays —
character-figure, Ca, (2) relative sunspot- typical magnetic disturbances of short dura-
number, R, (3) area, S, of sunspots in the tion which are preceded and followed by
central zone, (4) area, F, of flocculi in the generally undisturbed magnetic conditions,
central zone, (5) average total area, P, These bays are very pronounced near the
of prominences referred to central me- auroral zone, although their magnetic ef-

3 6

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

fects extend to equatorial regions. The from the tip of the pointer to the metallic

similarity of these blackouts to the well plate makes a record on a sheet continu-

known daylight fade-outs is marked. Both ously moving through the spark-gap. Thus

effects appear to be caused by absorption a succession of points burned in the paper

due to intense ionization of the lower makes immediately apparent variation of

ionosphere. The polar blackouts, so preva- the Earth's field with time,

lent during all magnetic disturbances, must In a second method, a photoelectric cell

result from particle bombardment (or is made to follow the light-beam reflected

equivalent) from the Sun. from a mirror rigidly fastened to the sus-
pended magnet of a variometer. A pen

Instrumental Developments attached to, or synchronized with the

photocell gives a record in ink of the

The close relations between magnetic deflections of the variometer. Any un-
and ionospheric disturbances have indi- balance of light falling on a twin photocell
cated the need for a visually recording results in a movement of the photocell to
magnetic variometer of simple construe- a new position, seeking a balance. When
tion. An instrument of this type would equal amounts of light fall on both sec-
permit immediate assessment of degree of tions of the photocell, the moving pen
disturbance and application of the observed stops until a change in magnetic field
correspondence between ionospheric and again causes an unbalance. This instru-
magnetic phenomena, especially when ment has attractive remote-recording pos-
operated in high latitudes. The onset of sibilities. The soundness of the principle
a magnetic disturbance is usually recog- was demonstrated by an experimental
nizable from standard magnetic records model, and further development is con-
before the storm has reached its major templated.

phase. Magnetic recordings, however, are Another type of visual recorder utilizes
made on photographic paper, and the special photographic paper which shows
daily traces are not available for inspection a trace, immediately visible through a red
until the paper has been processed. This filter, of deflections of the light-beam from
is generally too late for immediate appli- a standard variometer. A standard hy-
cation of established relations. A visual drographic recorder was adapted for use
recording variometer would overcome this with this equipment. One instrument was
difficulty and make possible short-term completed, tested, and assigned for field-
evaluation of expected local ionospheric tests shortly after the end of the report-year,
disturbances. Practical use of the 24-hour Variometers were designed for measur-
recurrence-tendency of magnetic bays in ing short-period geomagnetic fluctuations
polar regions is one such possible appli- by Vestine, Sherman, and Johnston in col-
cation, laboration with Messrs. Gebhardt and

One type of visual recorder incorporat- McComb, of the United States Coast and

ing a sparking device to plot changes in Geodetic Survey. Of major interest was

the Earth's field was devised. A long the successful construction of the element

platinum-tipped pointer attached to the for measuring magnetic vertical intensity,

magnet-system of the variometer moves along lines formerly less successfully fol-

over a metallic plate as the suspended lowed by Watson. New detecting ele-

magnet deflects in the Earth's field. At ments for horizontal intensity and declina-

intervals of about one minute a spark tion permit the accurate measurement of

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

geomagnetic fluctuations of periods as short
as one-half second. Sudden changes in field
such as might give rise to micropulsations
not recorded by variometers with slower re-
sponse can be detected and measured with
these instruments.

A new variometer of universal pattern
for horizontal intensity, vertical intensity,
and declination was designed and con-
structed with the assistance of Steiner;
this involves quartz-fiber detecting ele-
ments and quartz supports developed by
Sherman. A visually recording magneto-
graph incorporating this type of universal
variometer for horizontal intensity and la
Cour variometer for declination was de-

veloped by Vestine, Sherman, and others,
along general lines suggested by Fleming
and Wells. This design involves a new
type of quartz-suspension, with T-shaped
ends, permitting highly stable mounting
of a magnet-system designed by Sherman.
Some features have been used in a new
type of portable magnetograph, already in
construction, for use in the field as well
as at observatories. This kind of magneto-
graph is much needed for continuous, re-
liable magnetic records over short periods
(one or two weeks) for control and re-
duction of field-observations, for which
records as obtained at widely spaced ob-
servatories have proved insufficient.

TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY

The time and personnel devoted to re- toward, improvement of this instrument,

search in terrestrial electricity were further A clarification of some factors which affect

restricted this year by the demands of the the counting of nuclei of condensation and

war. The full time of Rooney and Tor- large ions was effected. The technique of

reson was devoted to problems concerned making sensitive quartz-fiber systems was

with war research, and Gish, Sherman, considerably improved (Sherman),

and Wait, in addition to maintaining the The research in atmospheric electricity

necessary routine and urgent research of consisted chiefly in studies by analysis and

the Section, worked Or acted as consultants correlation of observed data and in the in-

on several war problems.

Atmospheric Electricity

Development of instruments, methods,
and techniques, A report was written on
the constants, calibrations, and method of
operation of a set of precision ionization-
meters, designed for various investigations.
These meters are now being used by Pro-
fessor Victor F. Hess, Fordham University,
New York, in a study of the radioactivity
of earth-materials. Several improvements
in the circuits and in the technique of using
these meters were developed during the
year (Gish, Sherman). Further experi-
mental study (Sherman) of the behavior
of a thin-walled ionization-chamber indi-

terpretation of the results of such studies,
as outlined in the following paragraphs.

Electrode-effect in the atmosphere. A
study (Sherman) of manifestations of the
electrode-efrect in the air-conductivity reg-
istered at the Institution's observatories at
times when intense electric fields devel-
oped, led to inferences about a parameter —
designated the coefficient of combination
between small ions and large ions — which
appears in the equations for ionic equilib-
rium. The values of this coefficient here-
tofore determined by other methods differ
so greatly that this approach seemed worth
while. The value estimated (5.4 X io~ 6 ) is
within the range of the previously deter-
mined values. More important, however,

cates the need of, and points the way is the indication that the value is prac-

3«

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

tically the same for the three observatories The changes in columnar resistance are

at Watheroo (Western Australia), Tucson attributed chiefly to changes of either the

(Arizona), and Huancayo (Peru), which concentration or the vertical distribution,

differ considerably in altitude (244, 770, or both, of the nuclei of condensation in

and 3353 meters, respectively), as well as in the lower atmosphere, on the assumption

certain other aspects of their environment, heretofore made of arbitrary forms of dis-

Columnar resistance of the atmosphere, tribution. In one phase of the present in-
The term columnar resistance is used in vestigation, forms of distribution were
some discussions of atmospheric-electric sought consistent with the observed data
phenomena to denote the effective electrical and conforming to the meteorological or
resistance from end to end of a vertical other circumstances probably prevailing at
column of air of unit cross-sectional area, the time and place of observation.
Usually this column is conceived to extend The principal results of further analyses
from the Earth's surface to an indefinite and interpretations of atmospheric-electric
height, unless a definite height is specified, data, chiefly for Watheroo (Wait), follow:
This simple concept facilitates the discus- Variation of conductivity and air-earth
sion and interpretation of some aspects of current with wind-velocity at Watheroo.
atmospheric electricity, but it is valid only The investigation, reported last year, of
when certain circumstances obtain in the the correlation between potential-gradient
atmosphere. Additional assumptions are and wind-velocity at Watheroo was ex-
involved in some methods which have been tended this year to include the conduc-
used to estimate columnar resistance, and tivity and air-earth current. It was found
in some interpretations. A study of these that on smoky days the conductivity is
was made (Gish) to determine their independent of wind for velocities less
validity in specific cases. than about 42 miles per hour, but for

The relative columnar resistance for a greater velocities it increases with an in-
given station is the ratio of the columnar crease in wind-velocity. This is approxi-
resistance there to that for some other mately the inverse of the relation found
station; under certain assumptions it is for potential-gradient, hence the air-earth
equal to the inverse ratio of the values current undergoes no marked variation
of the vertical electric conduction-current with wind-velocity. These results suggest
at the respective stations. Evidence of a lati- that the smoke from near-by bush-fires is
tude-effect has been previously presented, dispersed in a vertical direction at the
but this has not generally been taken into higher wind-velocities, with the result that
account in studies of the relative columnar the concentration in the lower layers is
resistance (generally the resistance for a diminished, and that in the higher layers
land station relative to that for the oceans) ; of the air is, more or less correspondingly,
it was shown that this may lead to anoma- increased.

lous results. In one case the value was only On non-smoky days, the air-earth cur-
80 per cent of the corrected value, and with- rent increased slowly with increase in wind-
out the correction it could not be satis- velocity, particularly for the lower veloci-
factorily interpreted. Convenient empirical ties, whereas the conductivity decreased
expressions which accurately describe typi- slowly until at velocities greater than about
cal data for the resistance of a column 5 miles per hour it became more or less
extending from the Earth to a height Z, constant. This suggests that on non-smoky
as a function of Z, were found. days there was some smoke in the atmos-

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ^

phere which had come from more distant dition of calm is approached in the
bush-fires, but that it had been dispersed evening. When the wind remains high
horizontally by the wind, the total amount throughout the night, and also during the
in a vertical column decreasing as the wind- daylight hours, the concentration of radio-
velocity increased. At higher velocities active matter does not vary and the normal
the concentration of smoke apparently ap- diurnal variation in ionization does not
proached a limit and the conductivity no develop,
longer depended upon wind-velocity. Diurnal variation of air-conductivity at

The ratio of positive to negative con- Watheroo. Air-conductivity depends on
ductivity generally decreased with increas- the rate of ionization and the number of
ing wind-velocity except for velocities less condensation-nuclei present. The data
than 3 miles per hour on non-smoky days, from Watheroo indicate that its normal
This result may be due to the fact that fair-weather diurnal variation depends pri-
near the ground the concentration of nega- marily on the rate of ionization; on smoky
tive ions is reduced by the action of the days, however, the variation in the num-
electric field, but the mixing produced by ber of condensation-nuclei may be the con-
wind tends to counteract this electrode- trolling factor.

effect, to establish a more uniform vertical Diurnal variation of potential-gradient

distribution of the negative small ions, and in winter at Watheroo. The average di-

to cause the number of positive and nega- urnal variation of potential-gradient at

tive ions at any given height to approach Watheroo during the winter is of a type

the same concentration. Near the ground, quite unlike and during the summer quite

however, this condition is not realized at like that found over the oceans. This

the highest velocities investigated, since disparity may be explained as follows:

the ratio is still greater than unity. During the fair-weather days at Watheroo,

Diurnal variation of ionization in the the wind generally diminishes to low ve-

atmosphere. The observed rate of ioniza- locities toward evening and remains so

tion of the atmosphere at the site of the until early forenoon of the following day.

Department, obtained by use of a thin- when the velocity increases considerably,

walled ionization-chamber, often reached During 1927 to 1928, there were 17 fair-

a maximum in the early morning, then weather days on which the wind remained

diminished to a minimum in the evening, high during both the night and the day-

During periods of high wind at night or light hours. Comparison of atmospheric-

during the day, this type of diurnal varia- electric data for these and for days of

tion did not develop. This observation normal type indicates that : (a) The maxi-

tends to confirm the theory previously sug- mum in the normal winter diurnal varia-

gested, that the usual diurnal variation of tion of potential-gradient at Watheroo oc-

this element depends on the concentration curs at about 07 11 GMT (i5 h 120 east

of radioactive matter in the atmosphere meridian time) and over the oceans at

near the ground. This concentration is about 17 11 GMT. The diurnal variation

greatest in early morning following a calm for the 17 selected days, however, is very

night. As the wind-velocity increases dur- similar to that found over the oceans,

ing the forenoon, the radioactive matter is (b) Between io h and 20 11 , 120 east me-

scattered and mixed with higher layers of ridian time, the variation of gradient for

air, and its concentration in the lower normal days in winter at Watheroo is es-

layers of air is thus reduced until a con- sentially like that for the 17 selected days,

4 o

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

but during the remainder of the day it is
quite unlike it, since the potential-gradient
values for the normal days fall considerably
below those for the selected days, (c)
Though the conductivity of the lower at-
mosphere is also about the same for both
classes of days from io h to 20 h , that for
the normal day is the greater for the re-
mainder of the day. (d) The diurnal
variation of air-earth current for the two
types of day is similar throughout the
entire 24 hours.

These results indicate that the lack of
similarity in winter between the diurnal
variation of potential-gradient at Watheroo
and that over, the oceans is due chiefly to
the large increase in conductivity at Wath-
eroo during times of low wind-velocity.
This increase is to be attributed to a greater
rate of ionization caused by an accumula-
tion of radioactive matter in the air near
the ground. When the wind remains high
throughout the day, its stirring action pre-
vents the accumulation of radioactive mat-
ter; hence the variation of potential-gradi-
ent on such days is like that over the oceans.

Diurnal variation of potential-gradient
in summer at Watheroo. The diurnal
variation of potential-gradient in summer
is nearly in phase with that over the oceans.
This seems to contradict the above ex-
planation for the winter type. During
the summer, however, condensation-nuclei
from smoke tend to counteract the effect of
the increase of radioactive matter in the air,
because the smoke is most plentiful dur-
ing the period when the accumulation of
radioactive matter is greatest. The ac-
cumulation of smoke near the ground tends
to decrease the air-conductivity and to in-
crease the potential-gradient. Comparison
of the potential-gradient for smoky days
in summer at Watheroo with that observed
simultaneously over the oceans shows that
the former, particularly during the early
morning, exhibits a large relative increase.

The presence of smoke in the lower air
during the early morning apparently more
than neutralizes the effect of accumulated
radioactive matter there. Comparison for
non-smoky days at Watheroo, however,
shows that the potential-gradient is rela-
tively diminished during early morning,
the concentration of condensation-nuclei in
the lower air not being great enough to
counteract completely the effect of the ac-
cumulated radioactive matter, provided its
distribution with height is not involved.

Electrical mobility and size of particles
from the human breath. The observed
decrease of the electrical conductivity of
the air in a room occupied by people has
been attributed (Wait) to particles, or
nuclei, introduced into the room with ex-
haled air. Some investigators, using the
Aitken nuclei-counter, have not detected
such particles in samples from the breath,
because those particles are too large to be
counted with the types of counter used.
The average diameter of the particles, esti-
mated from an experimentally determined
value of their mobility, is about 2 microns,
or 30 times that of condensation-nuclei or
Langevin ions. The mobility derived from
the results of specially designed experi-
ments is 3 X io -6 cm 2 volt -1 sec -1 .

Geoelectricity

Early in 1943 it was found necessary to
discontinue the recording of earth-currents
at Tucson because of increased commercial
demands for the long-distance telephone
lines made available by the Bell Telephone
System. Attention was given (Gish) to
ways and means for restoring these regis-
trations. It is desirable that registration of
earth-currents be continued indefinitely at
a few well chosen stations, one of which
should be Tucson. Although the accumu-
lated data at Tucson are probably adequate
for the study of the more regular phe-

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

nomena (diurnal variation and annual tromagnetic storms. Some such permanent

variation) of earth-currents, additional data stations are also needed as controls in other

are required for investigating the more geoelectric investigations likely to be made

intense irregular aspects, for example elec- in the future.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE IONOSPHERE AND ITS RELATION TO

PROBLEMS OF GEOMAGNETISM

The fundamentals of the program of
ionospheric research by the Department
are outlined in the report for last year
(Year Book No. 41, pp. 54-58). The
Earth's magnetic field and long-distance
radio communication are mutually influ-
enced by the behavior of the highly ionized
regions of the Earth's atmosphere extend-
ing from 50 to 500 miles (or more) into
space.

The CIW multifrequency equipments at
Watheroo, Huancayo, and College con-
tinued operation (see pp. 46—52). The re-
ceipt of basic data from scalings and tabu-
lations maintained at the three observa-
tories was greatly expedited; thus it was
possible to make the results of analyses
and discussions more promptly available
to military agencies. Arrangements were
made to establish four additional stations
and to employ and train necessary per-
sonnel. The Department's laboratory at
Kensington, Maryland, was enlarged to
accommodate this work. The transition
from peacetime research to wartime proj-
ects without radical changes in duties has
been a source of satisfaction to all the
ionospheric group. When the wealth of
material now being assembled for the
armed forces becomes available for public
discussion and use, knowledge of the
ionosphere with its effect on radio wave
propagation and the Earth's magnetism
will be greatly enhanced.

The unique position maintained by the
Department through operation of iono-
spheric equipment at several field-stations
resulted in numerous requests for iono-

spheric data from local agencies and allied
governments.

Publications, Conferences, and Post-
war Plans

A paper was published by Wells on "Ef-
fects of solar activity on the ionosphere and
radio communications" {Proceedings of
the Institute of Radio Engineers, vol. 31,
pp. 147-157, 1943), originally presented in
July 1942 at Cleveland, Ohio. A similar
paper was presented at the meeting in
February 1943 of the Franklin Institute,
Philadelphia.

Certain plans for post-war activities were
discussed at various conferences with mem-
bers and representatives of allied govern-
ments. It is probable that post-war develop-
ments will see continued close cooperation
between the research laboratories and the
organizations capable of utilizing available
information to immediate advantage.

Other post-war activities in this field
probably will be directed toward a better
understanding of the fundamental relations
between the Earth's magnetic field, the
ionosphere, and the Sun — the ionosphere
being the medium most responsive to solar
activity which in turn affects the Earth's
magnetic properties. The study, already
under way, of correlations between radio
fade-outs, auroras, sporadic E-region ioni-
zation, and other unusual phenomena will
add detail to the composite picture of these
relations.

The electronic nature of the ionosphere
also affords an opportunity for direct meas-

4 2

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

urement of intensity of the Earth's mag-
netic field in the ionosphere. Preliminary
work done on this problem shows that
such measurements are feasible using
ionospheric apparatus specially developed
to measure the separation in frequency be-
tween the doubly refracted components
of the exploring radio wave. Such investi-
gations would undoubtedly pave the way
to much better understanding of the cur-

rent-systems and other factors affecting
geomagnetism.

Wells was in charge of the ionospheric
group and was assisted by Peavey and by
associates from the temporary staff. Mem-
bers of the staff in the field are noted in
the reports for the observatories. Berkner
was on leave of absence during the entire
report-year and commissioned as Com-
mander in the United States Navy.

MAGNETISM AND ATOMIC PHYSICS

Tuve, Hafstad, Heydenburg, Meyer (re- in the generator, magnet, or control. The
signed April 15, 1943), Roberts, Abelson, main vacuum-system and its water-cooling
and L. Schmidt (resigned March 6, 1943) arrangements were completed and tested,
of the nuclear-physics group were assigned The control-system and wiring, with the
or engaged full time during the entire exception of the radio-frequency circuits
report-year on war-research activities; G. K. (see below), were finished and are ready
Green continued active duty in the Signal for operation. All power-supplies are in-
Corps of the United States Army. Cowie stalled, but high humidity during the sum-
assigned from the National Cancer Insti- mer prevented exhaustive tests; the pre-
tute) had charge of work on the cyclotron, liminary tests, however, show no reason
in which he was assisted by Ksanda, P. A. to expect trouble providing suitable con-
Johnson, Buynitzky, F. R. Nichols, and trol of humidity for the entire equipment
Caherty (to September 30, 1942), all of is installed. The radio-frequency system
whom gave full time to constructional as- was well under way on June 30, 1943, and
sembling and wiring matters. Despite this the exciter-component had been installed
serious depletion of personnel, good prog- and tested. Completion of the system has
ress was made on the cyclotron. Lack of been delayed because of slow delivery of
personnel made it necessary to discontinue the Lenoxite insulators for the 30-kilowatt
for the time being further improvements power-amplifier tubes,
in the static generator of the Atomic-

Physics Observatory and most of the
planned program of research in nuclear
physics.

Cyclotron

The Cyclotron Laboratory and its equip-
ment are described in Year Books Nos.
40 (pp. 89-91) and 41 (pp. 61-63). The available in completing the cyclotron pro-
magnet-system is ready for continued hibited preparation of any manuscripts on
operation, as tests showed no difficulties work already done.

Miscellaneous

It was necessary to forego the proposed
Annual Conference on Theoretical Physics
of 1943, which would have been the ninth
in the series at Washington, because of
limitations of time and travel.

Full-time occupation of the few men

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

FIELD-WORK AND REDUCTIONS
LAND MAGNETIC SURVEY

Some final revisions and additions of
new material were made by Wallis and
Green for the next volume in the series
of Researches of the Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism, on "Land magnetic
survey, observations, 1927-1940," before
preparation of the master-copy for offset
printing. The revisions particularly con-
cerned the best possible corrections on
standard for instruments, using more
complete results of intercomparisons only
recently made available. Because of the
urgent requests for the data from many
organizations actively engaged in the prose-
cution of the war, both preliminary and
final values of geographical positions, mag-
netic elements, and maps were supplied
various public and private institutions.

The compilations for construction of new
isoporic charts of the Earth for all com-
ponents for epochs 1912.5, 1932.5, and
1942.5 were continued. Present grave un-
certainties in geomagnetic charts for var-
ious regions arise largely from the lack of
adequate estimates of secular change. The
new isoporic charts, supplemented by those
of Fisk for 1922.5, will give a firmer foun-
dation on which more accurate charts of
the future can be based.

The study of the adjustment of geo-
magnetic charts to mutual consistency in
all components was continued, including
improved methods for practical interpola-
tion in their construction.

A magnetic chart of vertical intensity for
epoch 1940 was prepared and was adopted
for use by the United States Hydrographic
Office and the British Admiralty.

Tables to correct field-observations for
geomagnetic variation in annual mean val-
ues with sunspot-cycle, annual variation,
post-perturbation, and solar daily variation
were compiled for all days during 1905

through 1942. Corresponding tables for
the storm-time variation and disturbance
daily variation are in preparation.

The development of new and simple
instruments for observations in the field
was continued.

Instruments were loaned to six observa-
tories for cooperative programs of measure-
ment. Instruments were also loaned for
magnetic surveys in South America, South
Australia, Northern Australia, New Zea-
land, British East Africa, and the United
States, and to various war agencies. Inter-
national standards and corrections to field-
instruments were maintained in coopera-
tion with the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey, using CIW sine-gal-
vanometer 1 and CIW Schulze earth-
inductor 48 at the Survey's Cheltenham
Magnetic Observatory.

Field-Operations and Cooperative
Surveys

Africa. CIW magnetometer and inductor
13 remained on loan to Dr. A. Walter, Direc-
tor of the British East African Meteorological
Service. Observations included monthly de-
terminations of the magnetic elements at
Kabete and reoccupations of established sta-
tions.

Dr. A. Ogg, of the Magnetic Branch of the
Trigonometrical Survey of the Union of
South Africa, continued active cooperative
measurements using CIW magnetometer-in-
ductor 17.

G. Heinrichs, of Elisabethville Magnetic
Observatory, Belgian Congo, communicated
magnetic charts and results of observations in
the field.

Australia. The Department of Supply and
Development at Canberra, through its Aerial,
Geological and Geophysical Survey of North-
ern Australia, continued work using CIW
magnetometer-inductor 18. Chief Geologist

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

J. M. Rayner completed new isogonic and
isoporic charts of Australasia, based on the
results of new measurements and others for
earlier years by the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism. Observer-in-Charge W. C. Park-
inson at Watheroo Magnetic Observatory co-
operated with the Australian authorities in
preparing similar charts of recent epoch for
Australia.

Astronomer G. F. Dodwell, of the Adelaide
Observatory, continued to use CIW mag-
netometer 6 and CIW dip-circle 226, for
which new dip-needles were supplied by the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.

New Zealand. CIW magnetometer-induc-
tor 27 remained on loan to the New Zealand
Magnetic Survey of the New Zealand Depart-

ment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
Director H. F. Baird reported on October 1,
1942 that 90 stations had been occupied (48
in North Island and 42 in South Island) and
that 18 more were planned (6 in North Island
and 12 in South Island).

North, Central, and South America. Mag-
netometer-inductors 26 and 28 were loaned
to the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey for use in South America, through ar-
rangement with the Department of State, in
continuance of previous surveys in the West-
ern Hemisphere.

Loan of equipment to war organizations
for field-surveys was also made, and included
standardization of instruments and training
of observers.

OBSERVATORY-WORK

Johnston continued in charge of the Sec- augmented by weekly summaries of mag-

tion of Observatory-Work. The magnetic netic and ionospheric data, predicted val-

reductions and compilations for Watheroo, ues of maximum usable frequencies for

Huancayo, and College magnetic observa- various distances, and current forecasts of

tories were maintained current with the ionospheric conditions likely to affect radio

assistance of Scott and Miss Balsam, communication.

McNish and Torreson were engaged The final reductions of the magnetic
wholly on war research throughout the observations at Watheroo and Huancayo
year. Wait continued discussions of the were completed for 1941 and 1942. The
atmospheric-electric data. The members of hourly values at Huancayo were used to
staff in residence at the observatories are reduce to epoch the results for many mag-
mentioned in their respective reports. netic stations obtained in South America

Continuous records were obtained at by the United States Coast and Geodetic
Watheroo and Huancayo of the magnetic Survey. The preliminary values of the
elements, of atmospheric potential-gradient, magnetic elements for all days of these
and of heights of the ionosphere (by both years are shown in table 1.
multifrequency and fixed-frequency trans- The cooperative program of reporting
missions) ; daily meteorological observa- the international geomagnetic three-hour-
tions and spectrohelioscopic observations range index, K, was continued. The De-
were made (for periods assigned by the partment also functioned as the receiving,
International Astronomical Union, but compiling, and distributing agency for this
only partially at Watheroo because of other measure of magnetic activity, based on re-
work) . The three-component seismograph ports so far received from 27, 23, and 21
and precision cosmic-ray meter were con- observatories for 1940, 1941, and 1942, re-

tinued in operation at Huancayo. The
magnetic, auroral, and ionospheric pro-
grams were maintained at College.
The usual analyses of the data were

spectively.

Weekly reports of indices from the
seven American-operated observatories
were maintained. Four additional sta-

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

tions are currently reporting: College,
Alaska, through the assistance of the Sig-
nal Corps of the United States Army;
Toolangi, Victoria, Australia, by the Aus-
tralian Radio Research Board, through
the Royal Australian Air Force; Godhavn
and Ivigtut, Greenland, by permission of
the Danish Minister, under the direction
of the Governor of Greenland, through the
Department of State of the United States

at the Department by utilizing all available
data on geomagnetic activity, namely, in-
ternational character-figure, C; daily index,
B, based on the ^-indices from 7 Ameri-
can-operated observatories (normalized to
represent world-wide conditions with al-
lowance for the nonlinearity of the K-
scales) ; and averages of the eight daily
indices, Km, for all available observatories.
The selection permits current reduction of

TABLE 1

Annual values of the magnetic elements at the Watheroo and Huancayo magnetic
observatories as based on magnetograms for all days, i94i and i942

Year

Decli-
nation,
D

Incli-
nation,

Intensity-components

Hori-

North-

East-

zontal,

Total,

south,

west,

Vertical,

Ct)

(7)

Local
mag-
netic

CON-
STANT,

Watheroo Magnetic Observatory

1941

1942......,....;:

3° 12:3 W
3 08.2 W

64° 25:2 S
64 24.8 S

24704
24731

57216
57263

24666
24694

-1381
-1354

-51608
-51647

35723
35756

Huancayo Magnetic Observatory

1941

1942

6 50.3 E
6 45.3 E

2 13.6 N
2 12.5 N

29471
29438

29494
29460

29262
29234

3509
3462

1146
1135

29477
29444

Government and the communication facili-
ties of the United States Army. Fifty-three
issues of "Report of geomagnetic activity"
(DTMCIW nos. 284 to 336) were pre-
pared and supplied to organizations or in-
dividuals whose legitimate needs are com-
patible with the war emergency.

The selection of the five international
quiet and disturbed days for each month
had been made through 1941 under the
auspices of the International Meteorological
Organization and derived from the inter-
national magnetic character-figure, C. Be-
cause of disturbed world-affairs, the num-
ber of contributing observatories had de-
creased from 59 in 1939 to 33 in 194 1. The
selection of these days for 1942 was made

magnetic observations from all observa-
tories for quiet and disturbed days.

An examination of the mutual consist-
encies of successive monthly means in
declination at Huancayo during 1922 to
1942 was completed by Scott. Additional
information was made available on the
effect of the sunspot-cycle on annual
changes, an effect for which allowance
must be made in the reduction to epoch
for magnetic observations in the field.

The compilation of the annual values
for the world's magnetic observatories of
the elements D, H, Z, I, X, Y, and F for
all days was continued by Fleming and
Scott. The first installment of the "List
of magnetic observatories and thesaurus

4 6

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

of values" in order of geographic latitude
from Baie Tichaja (8o?3 north) to Nie-
megk (52? i north) was published in June

J 943-
Cooperative work in geomagnetism and

geoelectricity was continued with various
observatories. Our international magnetic
standards were maintained at the Chelten-
ham Magnetic Observatory, and the pro-
grams in atmospheric electricity and earth-
currents (until early 1943) were continued
at Tucson Magnetic Observatory; these
observatories are operated by the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The
magnetic observatory at Ivigtut (Green-
land), established in 1941, began operation
in 1943, and special equipment designed
and constructed by the Department to
record short-period fluctuations of the
Earth's field was delivered and is now
operating.

Operations at Observatories

Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, Wath-
eroo, Western Australia. The Watheroo Mag-
netic Observatory is situated in latitude 30 °
19^1 south and longitude 115 52^6 east of
Greenwich, 244 meters (800 feet) above sea-
level.

The Eschenhagen and la Cour magneto-
graphs were in continuous operation. Weekly
determinations of the values of the base-lines
for the three elements were made. Monthly
determinations of the scale-value of the hori-
zontal-intensity and vertical-intensity variome-
ters were made by magnetic and electric
methods. Scale-values of the Eschenhagen
vertical-intensity variometer were also deter-
mined daily by the electrical method. The
monthly scale-values for 1942 for both mag-
netographs are shown in table 2.

positive, are: declination, + 4'i; horizontal
intensity, 4-27 gammas; vertical intensity,
— 39 gammas; inclination, -f 0^4 (see table 1).
Three-hourly /^-indices of magnetic char-
acter were assigned and transmitted weekly

TABLE 2

Scale-values of magnetographs, Watheroo
Magnetic Observatory, 1942

Scale- values in 7 /mm

Month

Eschenhagen

LA COUR

H
(reduced
to base-
line)

(means
of daily
values)

January . . .
February . .
March

April

May

June

July

August ....
September .
October. . . .
November .
December. .

2.39
2.40
2.39
2.40
2.40
2.42
2.41
2.41
2.39
2.42
2.40
2.42

3.20
3.28
3.27
3.23
3.28
3.10
3.21
3.11
3.04
3.07
3.17
3.26

4.85
4.54
4.47
4.38
4.34
4.54
4.72
4.71
4.57
4.57
4.59
4.59

3.38
2.87
3.00
3.12
3.43
3.90
4.26
4.08
3.75
3.57
3.66
3.21

TABLE 3

Details of magnetic disturbances recorded
at the Watheroo Magnetic Observa-
tory during 1942

Ranges

Date

(7)

(')

(7)

March 1-2

October 28-31

212

112

257
115

to Washington. Descriptions of the principal
magnetic disturbances during 1942 were pre-
pared; table 3 gives the essential details of
these disturbances.

Magnetic data, especially values of mag-
netic declination and secular variation, were

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

supplied on request to Australian and United
States military units.

The recording of earth-potentials over the
system of electrodes, described in previous
reports, was continued and compilation of
data maintained practically current. Elec-
trode-resistance and line-insulation tests and
current plotting of the reduced values indi-
cate satisfactory performance. Calibrations of
the recorder were made weekly through 1942
and monthly thereafter.

turbances were supplied until October 1942
to the Department of Air, and thereafter, in
accordance with a conference of ionospheric
workers in Sydney (at which W. D. Parkin-
son represented the Observatory) daily re-
ports were sent to Mount Stromlo through
the Department of Air. Warnings of ap-
proaching ionospheric disturbances were sent
to the Department of Air as heretofore. The
computation of predicted monthly curves was
taken over in October 1942 by the Radio Re-

TABLE 4

Preliminary monthly mean values of atmospheric-electric elements, Watheroo Magnetic

Observatory, 1942

Month

Potential-gradient

No.

selected

days

Reduction-
factor

Value
(v/m)

AlR-CONDUCTIVITY, UNIT 10 -4 ESU

No.

selected

days

X+

CX++X-)

(X+/X-)

January

February. ...... ...

March

April. ....... . . . . .

May

June .,'"'.

July ,,.•

August

September. ........

October

November

December

Totals and means

23
12
18
21
21
14
19
12
17
14
19
10

1.10

87.4
77.6
76.1
70.2
66.2
70.6
74.4
88.3
82.5
89.0
85.5
100.5

26
17
20
23
25
10
26
20
18
18
15
13

1.64
1.80
1.70
2.08
2.38
2.23
2.28
2.11
1.93
1.73
1.54
1.48

1.62
1.65
1.42
1.89
1.88
1.66
1.80
1.68
1.50
1.37
1.39
1.37

200

1.10

80.7

231

1.91

1.60

3.26
3.45
3.12
3.97
4.26
3.89
4.08
3.79
3.43
3.10
2.93
2.85

3.51

1.01
1.09
1.20
1.10
1.27
1.34
1.27
1.26
1.29
1.26
1.11
1.08

1.19

Air-potentials were continuously measured
by the potential-gradient automatic recorder.
The mean of two reduction-factor observa-
tions, 1. 10, agreed with the factor adopted
last year. Weekly calibrations of the elec-
trometer were made. Positive and negative
air-conductivities were continuously recorded
and weekly calibrations made. Preliminary
mean values of the atmospheric-electric ele-
ments are shown in table 4.

Scalings and reductions . of the automatic
multifrequency ionospheric records, except
during brief interruptions, were maintained
current. Weekly reports of ionospheric dis-

search Board. Complete summaries and
copies of tabulations were supplied monthly
to the Radio Propagation Committee of Aus
tralia. On and after October 1, 1942, the
"upper" heights of the F x - and F 2 -layers were
scaled at hourly intervals, at the request of
the Radio Propagation Committee, and on
and after February 1, 1943, hourly scalings
were made of the "maximum usable fre-
quency" for a path of 3500 km.

Regular watches were kept with the Hale
spectrohelioscope for solar disturbances, in
accordance with the international scheme,
until August 1942, when they were discon-

4»

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

firmed, because of shortage of personnel,
except for occasional scannings of the Sun's
disk.

Regular observations of meteorological
phenomena were continued throughout the
year and the automatic recording instru-
ments were maintained in operation. The
thrice-daily coded reports on weather, as here-
tofore, were sent to the forecasting stations at
Perth and Geraldton. Only essential control-
observations and reductions were made, and
most of the scalings had to be deferred.

TABLE 5

Rainfall at Watheroo Magnetic Observatory
during 1942

Month

Monthly
total
(in.)

No. days

Average

for 25 years

(in.)

January

February

March

April

0.46
0.00
1.83
0.80
3.12
2.74
2.08
2.06
1.34
0.51
0.03
0.61

0.34
0.53
1.04
0.92

May

2.21

June

Tuly

3.38
2.92

August

September

October

November

December

2.20
1.27
0.83
0.32
0.39

Totals

15.58

103

16.35

Table 5 shows the monthly rainfall at the
Observatory during 1942. The data obtained
with the Friez anemograph were not good
because of faults which have developed in
the float chamber; replacement has not yet
been received to put the recorder in first-
class condition.

W. C. Parkinson has continued as Observer-
in-Charge. Observer Norman left the Observ-
atory on October 1, 1942. W. D. Parkinson
continued as part-time Junior Observer, the
remainder of his time being occupied with
work for the Department of Air. Because
of the greatly reduced staff and the increase

in work essential for defense purposes, the
Royal Australian Air Board detailed observers
and other assistants to the Observatory. A
mechanic and assistant mechanic were regu-
larly employed.

Grateful acknowledgment is made of the
valuable assistance rendered to the Observa-
tory during the past year by the following
departments of the Australian government
and individuals: the Department of Trade
and Customs for continued favorable action
in regard to imported equipment and sup-
plies; the Directorate of Signals of the De-
partment of Air for transmission of magnetic
and other data through their radio channels,
for facilities for the safe delivery of records
from the Observatory to Washington, and
for cooperation in personnel matters; to Lieu-
tenant-Colonel West, CSO of the Line of
Communications, Western Australia Area
Signals, and Sir David Rivett, Executive Offi-
cer of the Council for Scientific and Indus-
trial Research, for assistance in personnel
problems.

The necessary reduction in staff arising
from the dearth of manpower has imposed
added demands on the personnel to main-
tain instrumental equipment in first-class
order and to keep essential work current. All
have cheerfully and efficiently cooperated in
every way to insure the success of the year's
operations.

Huancayo Magnetic Observatory. The
Huancayo Magnetic Observatory is in lati-
tude 12 02^7 south and longitude 75 ° 20^4
west. It is about S l / 2 miles nearly due west
of the town of Huancayo in the central valley
of the Peruvian Cordillera, and 3350 meters
(11,000 feet) above sea-level.

The data collected at the Observatory are
obtained, for the most part, from photo-
graphic continuously recording automatic ap-
paratus. Time-control marks are registered
on the records by electrically operated me-
chanical or optical devices actuated by a mas-
ter-clock which is checked and adjusted
through radio time-signals.

Two complete three-element Eschenhagen
and rapid-run la Cour magnetographs are

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

operated. A low-sensitivity la Cour horizon-
tal-intensity variometer also records continu-
ously on the Eschenhagen magnetogram.
Weekly base-lines were determined for the
magnetograms by absolute magnetic observa-
tions with magnetometer and earth-inductor.
Scale-value determinations were regularly
made by the Helmholtz-coil method. Mean
monthly scale-values for the magnetic re-
corders are given in table 6. Orientation-
tests and adjustments for the Eschenhagen
magnetograph were made in April and May

the instruments were made weekly and the
reduction-factor for the potential-gradient
was determined quarterly by comparisons
with potentials measured on the standardiza-
tion-plot near by. The preliminary monthly
mean values of the atmospheric-electric re-
sults for the year 1942 are given in table 7.
Condensation-nuclei counts were made daily
at o8 h , 75 west meridian time.

Earth-current potentials were recorded con-
tinuously by a Leeds and Northrup record-
ing potentiometer for two separate systems

TABLE 6

ScALE-VALUES OF MAGNETOGRAPHS, HUANCAYO MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY, 1 942

Month

Eschenhagen

(7mm)

(reduced
to base-
line)
(7/mm)

(means
of daily
values)
(7/mm)

LA COUR

(7/mm)

January . .
February .

March

April

May

June

July

August. . .
September
October. . .
November
December.

0.992
0.990
0.990
0.988
0.992
0.986
0.992
0.986
0.989
0.995
0.986
0.994

2.00
2.00
1.97
1.98
1.97
1.98
2.00
1.99
2.02
2.00
2.00
2.00

4.60
4.48
4.44
4.51
4.51
4.35
4.41
4.39
4.38
4.35
4.25
4.09

6.24
6.19
5.96
6.19
6.34
6.23
6.10
6.76
6.24
6.35
6.17
6.02

4.67
4.65
4.66
4.67
4.70
4.69
4.70
8.04
7.03
7.11
7.52
7.35

1943. Monthly reports of all important mag-
netic storms and disturbances were made.

The preliminary values for the annual
changes in the magnetic elements from 194 1.5
to 1942.5 deduced from the magnetograms
for all days, referring the elements to the
north-seeking end of the needle and reckon-
ing east declination and north inclination as
positive, are: declination, — 5'o; horizontal
intensity, — 33 gammas; vertical intensity,
— 11 gammas; inclination, — i'i (see table 1).

The conductivity of the air (positive and
negative) and air-potentials were recorded
continuously. Scale-value determinations for

of north-south and east-west pairs of ground-
electrodes.

Reflections from the ionosphere were con-
tinuously recorded both on fixed frequency
of 4800 kc/sec and by the multifrequency
ionospheric recorder. Daily control-observa-
tions and monthly calibrations were made.

As heretofore, meteorological observations
were made daily at o8 h , 75 ° west meridian
time, and continuous automatic records were
made of barometric pressure, air-temperature,
humidity, velocity and direction of wind, and
hours of sunshine. The rainfall was meas-
ured daily; the total for the year from July

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

i, 1942 to June 30, 1943 was 28.39 inches,
slightly lower than the 21 -year average of
28.88 inches. Temperatures during the year
were: maximum, 24?o C; minimum, — 6?o
C; highest monthly mean maximum, 2i?02
C in November; lowest monthly mean mini-
mum, — o?49 C in July 1942.

The cosmic-ray meter, CIW model C no. 2,
recorded continuously; weekly controls were
made by checking high-potential balance and
electrometer-zeros.

and monthly meteorological tabulations were
forwarded regularly to the Instituto Nacional
de Meteorologia e Hidrologia (recently
changed to Direccion General de Comunica-
ciones y Meteorologia Aeronautica) and to
the Centro Geografico Departamental de
Junin.

Paul G. Ledig, Observer-in-Charge, and
Observers Mark W. Jones, Albert A. Giesecke,
Jr., and Edwin J. Chernosky continued at the
Observatory. The three Peruvian clerical as-

TABLE 7

Preliminary monthly mean values of atmospheric-electric elements, Huancayo Magnetic

Observatory, 1942

Month

No.

SELECTED
DAYS

Potential-gradient

Reduction-
factor

Value
(v/m)

Air-conductivity, unit 10 -4 ESU

X+

(X++X-)

(Wx_)

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

Totals and means

1.18

54.8
54.7
57.9
47.6
51.4
49.4
51.4
47.2
49.8
45.4
42.0
47.4

3.84
3.22
3.45
3.48
3.54
4.37
3.78
4.30
3.82
4.20
4.28
4.55

3.80
3.00
3.50
3.50
3.72
4.68
4.0.2
4.50
3.98
4.26
4.23
4.60

49.9

3.90

3.98

7.64
6.22
6.95
6.98
7.26
9.05
7.80
8.80
7.80
8.46
8.51
9.15

7.;

1.01
1.07
0.99
0.99
0.95
0.93
0.94
0.96
0.96
0.99
1.01
0.99

0.98

The two Wenner horizontal-component
and the Beniofi vertical-component seismom-
eters operated satisfactorily. Analyses were
made of all important seismic disturbances,
and a total of 46 were reported in the inter-
national seismic code with the weekly broad-
cast of magnetic activity.

Daily observations to detect solar activity
were made with the Hale spectrohelioscope
whenever weather permitted, and monthly
reports were prepared.

Magnetic and meteorological data were sup-
plied to interested persons and institutions,

sistants, T. Astete, A. Macha, and V. Murga,
assisted in preparation of data and various
items of instrumental maintenance. The loyal
cooperation and enthusiasm of these mem-
bers of the staff have made possible the suc-
cessful completion of another year of our
extended program of geophysical research.

Grateful acknowledgment is made for the
generous assistance of the American Embassy
in obtaining free entry for shipments of sup-
plies for the Observatory, and to the Peruvian
government for granting this privilege. Our
Peruvian friends, including those in official

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

positions, continued active interest in the work
and gave valuable help.

College Observatory, Alaska. The College
Observatory is located at the University of
Alaska in the zone of maximum auroral ac-
tivity, about 5 miles by road west of Fair-
banks, in latitude 64 ° 51^4 north, longitude
147 49/3 west, at about 381 meters (1250
feet) above sea-level.

Ionospheric records with the multifre-
quency equipment, similar to that at Wath-
eroo and Huancayo, were continued. The
resulting compilations of data are especially
valuable as regards unique ionospheric con-
ditions prevalent in high latitudes. Weekly
summaries were transmitted through the
United States Army Signal Corps.

Special studies and reports relating to iono-
spheric problems were made by the staff of
the Observatory in cooperation with the
United States Army, the Civil Aeronautics
Administration, and the Federal Communi-
cations Commission station at Fairbanks.
Among these were: communications predic-
tions for the Alaskan Area; direction-finder
errors; comparison of actual with theoretical
values of maximum usable frequencies; rela-
tion between doubly refracted magneto-ionic
components in high latitudes; comparison of
methods for deduction of maximum usable
frequencies from vertical-incidence iono-
spheric measurements; analytical examination
of relative sporadic F-layer ionization to both
magnetic and auroral activity; theoretical ex-
amination of lateral deviations of radio waves
caused by systematic tilting of the ionosphere;
ionospheric measurements during the partial
solar eclipse of February 4, 1943; and study
of high-frequency communications circuits in
Alaska.

Charts were prepared showing the systemat-
ic diurnal and seasonal changes in transmis-
sion characteristics of the ionosphere. In gen-
eral terms these characteristics may be de-
scribed as follows: In summer the F-region
ionization attains a broad maximum near
noon and decreases at night to a not greatly
lower minimum. In winter the F-region
ionization attains a high maximum, sharply

peaked at midday, and remains quite low
during the night. Sporadic F-region blanket-
ing is the rule at night, and the high inci-
dence and variability of intense F-region ioni-
zation during the night hours are the out-
standing observed phenomena of importance
to propagation of radio waves in high lati-
tudes. Radio "blackouts" characterized by
the cessation of all echoes on frequencies up
to 16 Mc/sec continued to be of great fre-
quency and long duration. A comparison of
current F-region critical frequencies with
those observed during corresponding months
of the previous year indicated a current secu-
lar decrease in ionization of about 30 per
cent per year. The parallel decrease in sun-
spot-numbers was about 40 per cent.

The ionospheric data as compiled are not
entirely homogeneous bcause of several fac-
tors, as follows: (1) Separation of the F-layer
does not occur in midwinter, so that Fi-data
cannot be ascertained for a high percentage
of the time; (2) during a number of hours
in midday in summer the maximum height
of the F 2 -region cannot be ascertained be-
cause of the proximity of the F t - and F 2 -criti-
cal frequencies; (3) sporadic F-region blanket-
ing at night and fade-outs during the day
often prevent the determination of the quan-
tities. For the sake of uniformity, considera-
tion is given only to those monthly means
of hourly values obtained when the data are
recorded about 50 per cent or more of the
time.

The insensitive la Cour magnetograph was
continued in operation during the year July
1, 1942 to June 30, 1943. Scale-values were
maintained at i8.2y/mm for horizontal in-
tensity, 26.5y/mm for vertical intensity, and
5f2/mm for declination. Base-line and scale-
value determinations were made at weekly
intervals. The preliminary mean values for
all days of the year 1942 are: declination,
+ 29 52^0; horizontal intensity, 12582-/; ver-
tical intensity, +55342-/.

A disturbance daily variation with well de-
fined peak at about n h 3o m GMT (shortly be-
fore local magnetic midnight) is indicated by
the monthly mean ratings of hourly disturb-

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

ance, or, more roughly, by the three-hour-
range indices, K. As a measure of the "usa-
bility" of the ionosphere, the daily sums of
the i^-indices provided figures which are per-
haps in better accord with observed radio-
communication conditions than are indices of
disturbance based on the ionospheric records.
The daily magnetic indices are closely related
to daily sums of hourly minimum frequencies
derived from the ionospheric data, this quan-
tity constituting a measure of absorption of
energy in the ionosphere. Particularly during
night hours, however, intense and variable
sporadic E-region blanketing is a factor affect-
ing the usability of the ionosphere, and this
is not necessarily reflected by an increase in
the minimum frequencies. The close corre-
lation between the two indices may be attrib-
uted to that between the occurrence of high
sporadic E-layer ionization at night and fade-
out conditions, with increased absorption of
the lower frequencies, during adjacent day-
light hours. Association of magnetic and
ionospheric disturbances gives added utility
to current magnetic records in regions near
the auroral zone.

Both photographic and visual auroral ob-
servations were continued during the 1942-
1943 season. Exposures of the night sky near
the zenith at 2.5-minute intervals were made
with the automatic camera. Visual observa-
tions included hourly estimates of auroral ac-
tivity, extent, and intensity throughout hours
of darkness according to auroral indices from
o to 9.

Bramhall was Physicist-in-Charge to May
1, 1943, when he transferred the Observatory
to Seaton and returned for duty at Washing-
ton. Seaton was assisted by observers and
others of the temporary staff. The results ob-
tained evidence the efficiency and diligence
of the personnel.

Grateful acknowledgment is due President
Bunnell and the Regents of the University of
Alaska for the large and generous part taken
in providing facilities for the Observatory and
its operation. Cordial liaison with civil and
military authorities, interested in problems of

communication in Alaska, was also a most
important factor and stimulus.

Cooperation with Other Observatories

Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory, United
States. The cooperative program with the
Cheltenham Magnetic Observatory of the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey was
continued, using CIW instruments for abso-
lute standards in horizontal intensity and in-
clination. Automatic daily records of cosmic-
ray intensity were maintained with the CIW
precision cosmic-ray meter, with the assistance
of Observer-in-Charge J. Hershberger. Facili-
ties for the standardization of our magnetom-
eters and inductors were furnished.

Apia Observatory, Western Samoa. The
Department continued cooperation with the
Apia Observatory through its Acting Direc-
tor, H. B. Sapsford. In the geomagnetic pro-
gram, CIW magnetometer 9 and CIW
Schulze earth-inductor 2 were used for abso-
lute observations. The annual magnetic re-
ports for the years 1 94 1 and 1942 are almost
complete.

Tucson Magnetic Observatory, United
States. In cooperation with the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, complete and
continuous registrations of atmospheric po-
tential-gradient, and of positive and negative
air-conductivities, were obtained with the as-
sistance of Observer-in-Charge J. H. Nelson,
using equipment supplied by the Depart-
ment. The earth-current program, made pos-
sible through the cooperation of the Bell Tele-
phone System, was discontinued early in 1943
(see p. 40). Table 8 summarizes the monthly
and annual values of the atmospheric-electric
elements as computed by Mrs. G. Dewey and
assembled by Sherman. There were no ob-
servations of reduction-factor during the year.

Hermanns Magnetic Observatory, South
Africa. CIW magnetometer-inductor 17 con-
tinued in use. Dr. A. Ogg sent /^-indices
promptly and reported that the magnetic re-
ductions had been kept current.

Godhavn Observatory, Greenland. Because
of the war, cooperation was continued in pro-

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

viding supplies and instrumental replace-
ments for the magnetic program. K. Thiesen,
of the Observatory, continued his collabora-
tion with the Cosmic-Ray Committee of the
Institution by operating the CIW precision
cosmic-ray meter. AMndices were communi-
cated weekly from February 1943 through

of Greenland, and with authorization of the
Danish Minister at Washington, D. C, Mr.
Thiesen spent a short time at Ivigtut to ini-
tiate the continuous recording. He installed
the CIW specially designed elements in the
variometers of the second magnetograph. K-
indices have been reported weekly since May

TABLE 8

Preliminary monthly mean values of atmospheric-electric elements, Tucson Magnetic

Observatory, 1942

Month

January ...........

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October ...........

November

December

Totals and means

Potential-gradient

No.

selected

days

28
21
21
20
24
23
11
19
22
20
24
26

259

Value
(v/m)

69.2
55.0
57.8
47.6
53.0
52.8
49.4
56.3
46.6
49.7
54.0
72.0

55.3

Air-conductivity, unit 10~ 4 ESU

All

complete

days

28
29
28
30
28
28
25
27
29
30
30

343

1.91
2.15
2.04
2.48
2.55
2.69
2.29
2.56
2.61
2.53
2.55
2.18

2.38

1.75
2.10
2.03
2.33
2.42
2.61
2.08
2.31
2.40
2.35
2.35
1.97

2.22

(X++X-)

3.66
4.25
4.07
4.81
4.97
5.30
4.37
4.87
5.01
4.88
4.90
4.15

4.60

(X+A-)

1.09
1.02
1.01
1.06
1.05
1.03
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.08
1.09
1.11

1.07

the United States Department of State. Cur-
rent tabulations of hourly values for all mag-
netic elements were supplied.

Ivigtut Magnetic Observatory, Greenland.
During the summer of 1942 a magnetograph
was installed by K. Thiesen. It was operated
intermittently during the summer while a
magnetic survey of the area was in progress.
Arrangements were made by the Department
early in May 1943 with S. O. Corp, Manager
of the Ivigtut Cryolite Mines, who generously
offered to operate the Observatory continu-
ously. At the direction of Governor E. Brun

29, 1943 through the cooperation of the
United States Army Communication Services.

Christchurch Observatory, New Zealand.
Director H. F. Baird continued operation of
the CIW precision cosmic-ray meter. K-
indices were regularly supplied.

Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius. CIW
marine-inductor 4 was used for the control
of the vertical-intensity records.

Teoloyucan Observatory, Mexico. Dr. J.
Gallo, Director of the National Astronomi-
cal Observatory of Mexico, continued opera-
tion of the CIW precision cosmic-ray meter.

54 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

PUBLICATIONS ON THE "CARNEGIE" DATA

Six quarto volumes of the series under suits in physical oceanography were half
the general title "Scientific Results of completed by June 30, 1943. This volume
Cruise VII of the Carnegie during 1928- is being prepared in two parts: "Ocea-
1929, under command of Captain J. P. nography— I-A" (150 pages), by J. A. Flem-
Ault" were published by the Institution, ing, H. U. Sverdrup, and F. M. Soule;
These were: "Biology — I: The copepods and "Oceanography — I-B" (300 pages), by
of the plankton gathered during the last J. A. Fleming, C. C. Ennis, S. L. Stuart,
cruise of the Carnegie" (237 pages), by and W. C. Hendrix. The first part relates
Charles B. Wilson; "Biology — II: The to outline of cruise, descriptions of equip-
oceanic Tintinnoina of the plankton gath- ment, and discussions of results in physical
ered during the last cruise of the Carnegie" oceanography. The second part includes
(163 pages), by Arthur Shackleton Camp- the extended tables and some 254 graphs
bell; "Biology — III: Studies in the mor- of observed and reduced data,
phology, taxonomy, and ecology of the The master-copy for "Physical Ocea-
Peridiniales" (129 pages), by Herbert W. nography — II: Marine bottom samples col-
Graham; "Biology — IV: Biological results lected in the Pacific Ocean on the last cruise
of the last cruise of the Carnegie" (92 of the Carnegie" (190 pages), by Roger
pages), a series of short reports by Herbert Randall Revelle, has been completed. This
W. Graham, William Albert Setchell, volume includes also "Radium-content of
Aaron L. Tread well, W, M. Tattersall, ocean-bottom sediments," by Charles Snow-
James O. Maloney, Harry G. Barber, Alex- den Piggot.

ander Wetmore, M. W. de Laubenfels, Other volumes in the series awaiting

Austin H. Clark, E. A. Chapin, Hoyt S. publication are "Biology — V," by Herbert

Hopkins, and Doris M. Cochran; "Meteor- W. Graham, and "Chemistry — I," by Her-

ology — I : Meteorological results of cruise bert W. Graham, E. G. Moberg, and J. P.

VII of the Carnegie, 1928— 1929" (168 Ault.

pages), by Woodrow C. Jacobs and Kath- The laborious task of preparing final

erine B. Clarke; and "Meteorology — II: master-copies for offset production from

Upper-wind observations and results ob- the manuscripts is being performed by

tained on cruise VII of the Carnegie" (94 Miss Todd, with the assistance of Hendrix

pages), by Andrew Thomson. in connection with final arrangement of

The master-copy and diagrams of re- graphs and other illustrations.

INSTRUMENT-SHOP

The numerous obligations for the design his direction. The application and over-

and construction of special models and ap- time given by all have been most important

paratus for war problems, under nine in the success attained,
contracts with the Army, Navy, and Office In addition to the war work, which took

of Scientific Research and Development, 70 per cent of the time available, excellent

were effectively met in the Instrument- progress was made in the cyclotron in-

Shop by Foreman Steiner and the men stallation, now nearing mechanical comple-

of the regular and temporary staffs under tion. The urgent necessary maintenance of

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

buildings, laboratory facilities, equipment grounds, as well as provision for the in-
for and shipment to the observatories, and creased personnel, was maintained.

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES

Members of the staff took part in
scientific meetings and organizations as
officers and members and in special com-
mittees. Contacts were maintained with
geophysicists in the United States and
abroad — so far as was possible under exist-
ing conditions — through cooperation with
the American Geophysical Union, which
also represents the National Research
Council in the International Union of
Geodesy and Geophysics. The participa-
tion of the scientific personnel in matters
relating to the war effort, through the
bureaus of the United States Army and
Navy and the Office of Scientific Research
and Development, have also required con-
ferences with cooperating observatories
and organizations in various parts of the
United States and Canada.

Library. There was continued rapid de-
crease in the flow of publications from
European countries, other than Great
Britain, and in the number of papers
on researches of interest to the Depart-
ment. As a result of this and the absorp-
tion of American men of science into
war-research work, which further lessened
the publication of geophysical results in
America, there were only 394 accessions
during the report-year as against 456 last
year, bringing the total number of acces-
sioned books and pamphlets to 27,053. All
articles in current periodicals, reprints, and
other pamphlets received which related
to researches of interest to the Department
were catalogued.

The voluminous Wilkes collection of un-
published manuscripts of the United States
Exploring Expedition oi 1 838-1 842 at the
Library of Congress was examined, and a

compilation of the values of the observed
declination was prepared. This examina-
tion was facilitated by Dr. St. George
Sioussat, Chief of the Division of Manu-
scripts of the Library of Congress, and his
assistants. The magnetic data on file at the
United States Hydrographic Office were
also examined. The greater part of the
many observations of declination which
are known to have been obtained, and
which were to have been published in the
Expedition's volume on "Physics," has
not yet been found.

The modern student of geomagnetism is
rightly concerned with practical and theo-
retical studies and has little time to in-
vestigate the historical development of the
science. Still, such study is well worth
while, for it adds much interest to the
subject and reveals the long and tedious
progress through many centuries. To the
regular worker, an exhaustive study of the
subject is practically impossible because
of the inaccessibility of the sources and the
diversity and difficulties of the languages
in which the early contributions to the
science were written. In order that these
important documents might be available
to investigators, Librarian Harradon un-
dertook the task of translating some of
them and of adding information regard-
ing their authors and background. Three
of these translations with notes were pub-
lished in the Journal of Terrestrial Mag-
netism and Atmospheric Electricity (see
bibliography) . A paper on this matter was
presented before, the Section of Terrestrial
Magnetism and Electricity of the Ameri-
can Geophysical Union on April 23, 1943.

The Librarian continued as coeditor of

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

the Journal of Terrestrial Magnetism and rector and in charge of the general corre-

Atmo spheric Electricity, giving attention spondence files of the Department and

particularly to foreign contributions, prepa- the storage and distribution of reprints,

ration of notes, reviews of books and re- He also typed a large number of reports

ports, and annotated bibliographies of and manuscripts.

recent publications on geomagnetism, geo- Office administration. Most of the regu-
electricity, and cosmic relations. His list lar time and much overtime was required
of published papers by members of the in correspondence, placing of orders, prior-
Department up to December 31, 1942 ity procedure for materials and travel, ac-
showed a total of 2217. Reprints of these counting, and matters concerned with
papers were distributed to interested per- personnel, in connection with the war
sons and institutions. Because of the war, work for the government under contracts
distribution of reprints to foreign addresses with the Office of Scientific Research and
was somewhat interrupted. Harradon re- Development, the Navy Department, and
vised the manuscripts by R. G. Fitzsim- the Signal Corps.

mons and M. Wiener on the magnetic The responsibilities of the greatly in-

and auroral results obtained by the United creased demands of office and personnel

States Antarctic Expedition of 1939-1941, were effectively met by M. B. Smith, ad-

which are being published by the United ministrative assistant, with the cooperation

States Department of the Interior. of Moats, Miss Gottshall, Miss Dermody,

The facilities of the library, as in pre- and Dove of the regular staff, and the

vious years, were made available to re- many temporary members assigned to the

search workers and students from educa- Section of Administration and Account-

tional institutions and government bureaus ing.

and, in particular, to specialists engaged Capello, secretary and property-clerk, had
on war problems. The practice of inter- charge of shipments and inventory, main-
library loans was continued, and reciprocal tained detailed monthly statements of time
and cordial relations were maintained, par- and costs of work in the shop, and pre-
ticularly with the Library of Congress, pared manuscripts. The drawings, charts,
With the latter, the Department cooper- and illustrations for publications and re-
ated in various ways, particularly in fur- ports were prepared by Hendrix. He and
nishing its list of holdings of Axis-con- J. W. Green also handled the photographic
trolled scientific journals since 1939 to aid work. The records received from the ob-
in the compilation of the catalogue of such servatories and field were arranged and
journals available in libraries throughout filed by Miss Balsam, who with Capello
the United States. kept current the cataloguing of photo-
Dove continued as Secretary to the Di- graphic films and index-albums of prints.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, W. S., J. A. Fleming, and F. E. Wright. Bartels, J. Erdmagnetisch ruhige und gestorte

Progress-report of Committee on Coordina- Tage, Januar bis September 194 1. Terr,

tion of Cosmic-Ray Investigations for the Mag., vol. 47, p. 267 (1942).

period July 1941 to June 1942. Carnegie Berkner, L. V. Radio-transmission conditions in

Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 41, pp. 87-90 equatorial regions from observations in the

(1942). Americas. Proc. 8th Amer. Sci. Cong.

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

(Washington, D. C, 1940), vol. 7, pp. 279-
289 (1942).

Chapman, S. Notes on the lunar magnetic tide.
I. Its mathematical and graphical representa-
tions and their significance. Terr. Mag.,
vol. 47, pp. 279-294 (1942).

Archaeologica geomagnetica. Terr. Mag.,

vol. 48, pp. 1-2 (1943).

Archaeologica geomagnetica. II. Terr.

Mag., vol. 48, pp. 77-78 (1943).

Cowie, D. B. See Dowdy, A. H.; Lorimier,
A. A. de; White, T. N.

Dowdy, A. H., B. DuBillier, and D. B. Cowie.
A new type of radium loading protective
device. Amer. Jour. Roentgenol, and Ra-
dium Therapy, vol. 49, pp. 803-810 (1943).

DuBillier, B. See Dowdy, A. H.

Farrell, M. W. The Carnegie's bronze hook.
The Rudder, vol. 59, pp. 9-1 1 (1943).

Fleming, J. A. William John Peters. Science,
vol. 96, pp. 127-128 (1942).

Summary of the year's work to June 30,

1942, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Carnegie Institution of Washington. Terr.
Mag., vol. 47, pp. 301-308 (1942).

Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-
Ray Investigations. Terr. Mag., vol. 47,
pp. 309-314 (1942).

Researches in terrestrial magnetism and

electricity at Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
for the year April 1941 to March 1942.
Amer. Geophys. Union, Trans. 1942, pt. II,
pp. 312-315 (1942).

Geomagnetism in Latin America. Proc.

8th Amer. Sci. Cong. (Washington, D. C,
1940), vol. 7, pp. 47-56 (1942).

Terrestrial magnetism and electricity.

Amer. Year Book for 1942, pp. 730-735

(i943)-

The American Geophysical Union. Sci-
ence, vol. 97, pp. 565-568 (1943).

(ed.). American Geophysical Union,

Transactions of 1942. Reports and papers,
joint regional meetings, Section of Hy-
drology (A) Dallas, Texas, (B) Pasadena,
California. Twenty-third annual meeting,
April 3 and 4, 1942, Washington, D. C.
2 pts., .740 pp. Washington, National Re-
search Council (1942).

and W. E. Scott. List of geomagnetic

observatories and thesaurus of values. Terr.
Mag., vol. 48, pp. 97-108 (1943).

See Adams, W. S.

Forbush, S. E., and I. Lange. See report of
Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray
Investigations, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year
Book No. 42, p. 63 (1943).

Gish, O. H. Further evidence of a latitude-
effect in potential-gradient. Terr. Mag., vol.
47, PP- 3 2 3-3 2 4 (1942).

Harradon, H. D. William John Peters, 1863-
1942. Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 187-193
(1942).

Some early contributions to the history

of geomagnetism. I. The letter of Peter
Perigrinus de Maricourt to Sygerus de
Foucoucourt, soldier, concerning the mag-
net. Terr. Mag., vol. 48, pp. 3-17 (1943).

Some early contributions to the history

of geomagnetism. II. Treatise on the sphere
and the art of navigation, by Francisco
Falero. III. Brief compendium on the sphere
and art of navigating, by Martin Cortes.
Terr. Mag., vol. 48, pp. 79-91 (1943).

List of recent publications. Terr. Mag.,

vol. 47, pp. 275-277, 343-346 (1942); vol.
4 8 , PP- 73-76, 123-125 (i943)-

Hess, V. F. See report of Committee on Co-
ordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations,
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 42,
p. 64 (1943).

Johnson, T. H. See report of Committee on
Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations,
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 42,
p. 65 (1943).

Johnston, H. F. American URSI broadcasts of
cosmic data, giving American magnetic char-
acter-figure, C A , three-hour-range indices,
K, and mean X-indices, K A , for April to
June, 1942; American magnetic character-
figure, C A , three-hour-range indices, K, and
mean i£-indices, K A , for July to Septem-
ber, 1942; American magnetic character-
figure, C A , three-hour-range indices, K, and
mean /C-indices, K A , for October to Decem-
ber, 1942, and summary for year 1942;
American magnetic character-figure, C A ,
three-hour-range indices, K, and mean K-
indices, K A , for January to March, 1943.
Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 257-260, 325-328
(1942); vol. 48, pp. 19-27, 93-96 (1943).

Jones, M. W., and P. G. Ledig. On the anoma-
lous diurnal variation of air-conductivity and
potential-gradient at the Huancayo Mag-

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

netic Observatory. Amer. Geophys. Union,
Trans. 1942, pt. II, pp. 301-304 (1942).

Lange, I. See Forbush, S. E.

Ledig, P. G. Principal magnetic storms, Huan-
cayo Magnetic Observatory, April to June,
1942; July to September, 1942; October to
December, 1942; January to March, 1943.
Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 272, 338 (1942);
vol. 48, pp. 66-67, 119-120 (1943).

See Jones, M. W.

Lorimier, A. A. de, D. B. Cowie, and T. N.
White. Protective features provided with
the United States Army field roentgeno-
scopic equipment. Amer. Jour. Roentgenol,
and Radium Therapy, vol. 49, pp. 653-661

(i943)-

See White, T. N.

McNish, A. G. Fossil magnetism. Sci. Amer.,
vol. 168, pp. 166-167 ( x 943)-

Millikan, R. A. See report of Committee on
Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations,
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book No. 42,
p. 68 (1943).

Nielsen, C. E., and W. M. Powell. See report
of Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-
Ray Investigations, Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Year Book No. 42, p. 69 (1943).

Parkinson, W. C. Principal magnetic storms,
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, March
1942. Terr. Mag., vol. 47, p. 273 (1942).

Phillips, M. L. Association of large ions and
fog. Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 295-299
(1942).

Powell, W. M. See Nielsen, C. E.

Sapsford, H. B. Principal magnetic storms,
Apia Observatory, April to September, 1942;
January to March, 1943. Terr. Mag., vol. 47,
p. 338 (1942); vol. 48, p. 119 (1943).

Scott, W. E. The mutual consistency of suc-
cessive monthly means of declination, Huan-
cayo Magnetic Observatory. Terr. Mag., vol.
48, pp. 45-48 (1943).

See Fleming, J. A.

Silsbee, H. B., and E. H. Vestine. Geomag-
netic bays, their frequency and current sys-
tems. Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 195-208
(1942); (abstract) Amer. Geophys. Union,
Trans. 1942, pt. II, pp. 290-291 (1942).

Vestine, E. H. The annual variation of geomag-

netism. (Abstract) Amer. Geophys. Union,
Trans. 1942, pt. II, p. 291 (1942).
— See Silsbee, H. B.

Wait, G. R. Electrical resistance of a vertical
column of air over Watheroo (Western
Australia) and over Huancayo (Peru).
Terr. Mag., vol. 47, pp. 243-249 (1942).

Effect of smoke on the atmospheric-
electric elements at the Watheroo Magnetic
Observatory. Terr. Mag., vol. 48, pp. 49-

63 (i943)-

Atmospheric-electric results from simul-

taneous observations over the ocean and at
Watheroo, Western Australia. Amer. Geo-
phys. Union, Trans. 1942, pp. 304-308
(1942).
Wells, H. W. Earth's magnetic field and ac-
tual heights in ionosphere. (Abstract) Amer.
Geophys. Union, Trans. 1942, pt. II, p. 289
(1942).

Effects of solar activity on the iono-
sphere and radio communications. Proc.
Inst. Radio Eng., vol. 31, pp. 147-157

(i943)-
White, T. N., D. B. Cowie, and A. A. de
Lorimier. Radiation hazards during roent-
genoscopy. Amer. Jour. Roentgenol, and
Radium Therapy, vol. 49, pp. 639-652

(i943)-

See Lorimier, A. A. de.

Wright, F. E. See Adams, W. S.

Reviews

Harradon, H. D. Oceanography for meteorolo-
gists, by H. U. Sverdrup. (Rev.) Science,
vol. 67, pp. 120-121 (1943).

American Geophysical Union, Transac-
tions of 1942, edited by J. A. Fleming.
(Rev.) Terr. Mag., vol. 48, pp. 39-40 (1943).

Magnetic observations at the secular-
variation field-stations in the Union of South
Africa and Southwest Africa, and a com-
parison with corresponding values at the'
Magnetic Observatory, Cape Town. (Rev.)
Terr. Mag., vol. 48, p. 44 (1943).

Die erdmagnetische Aktivitat in So-

dankyla in den Jahren 1914-1934, by E.
Sucksdorff. (Rev.) Terr. Mag., vol. 48,
pp. 113-114 (i943)-

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

Special Publications

Scientific results of cruise VII of the Carnegie
during 1928-1929 under command of Cap-
tain J, P. Ault:

Biology — /. The copepods of the plankton
gathered during the last cruise of the Car-
negie. By C. B. Wilson. Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Pub. 536. v + 237 pp., 136 figs. (1942).

Biology— II. The oceanic Tintinnoina of the
plankton gathered during the last cruise of
the Carnegie. By A. S. Campbell. Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Pub. 537. v + 163 pp., 1 pi.,
128 figs. (1942).

Biology — ///. Studies in die morphology, tax-
onomy, and ecology of the Peridiniales.
By H. W. Graham. Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Pub. 542. vii+ 129 pp., 1 pi., 67 figs. (1942).

Meteorology — /. Meteorological results of
cruise VII of the Carnegie 1928-1929. By
W. C. Jacobs and K. B. Clarke. Carnegie
Inst. Wash. Pub. 544. v + 168 pp., 62 figs.

(i943)-
Meteorology — //. Upper-wind observations
and results obtained on cruise VII of the
Carnegie. By A. Thomson. Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Pub. 547. v+93 pp., 46 figs. (1943).

SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES

Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-Ray Investigations. Progress report for the
period July 1942 to ]une 1943. (For previous reports 1 see Year Books Nos. 32-41.)

Activities in cosmic-ray research were
further reduced during the year ending
June 30, 1943, because of assignment of
interested personnel to war-research prob-
lems. Some progress was made, never-
theless, as is evidenced by the appended
reports of investigators with whom the
Carnegie Institution of Washington co-
operated.

There is only a remote possibility that
research on cosmic rays may find appli-
cation to wartime problems. It is essential,
nevertheless, in view of past experience,
that so far as possible continuity of per-
manent records with cosmic-ray meters be
maintained for future theoretical and sta-
tistical investigation. Under the general
supervision of the Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism the cosmic-ray meters
at Cheltenham, Huancayo, Teoloyucan,
Christchurch, and Godhavn were kept in
operation by the collaborating agencies.
For stations abroad the necessary arrange-
ments were effected despite difficulties of
obtaining materials, supplies, and shipping
facilities.

No work was reported by Professor M. S.
Vallarta at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology or by Professor R. B. Brode
at the University of California, because of
their assignment to urgent war problems.

The investigations of Professor A. H.
Compton's group at the University of Chi-
cago were continued on a limited scale.
Professor Compton could not spare time to
prepare a formal report. His program
includes investigations of time- and height-
variations of cosmic rays, composition and

1 For statement on formation, purposes, and
policies of the Committee see Year Book No. 38
(1938-1939), pp. 335-349-

intensity of cosmic rays, production of sec-
ondary radiation, and properties of the
mesotron. Several brief abstracts on the
investigations have appeared in Physical
Review; these relate to evaluation of the
lifetime of the mesotron, theory of at-
mospheric cosmic-ray showers, nature of
primary radiation, slow mesotrons in the
stratosphere, and reduction of mesotrons
and measurements of cascade showers
produced by ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation.

S. E. Forbush, on leave of absence dur-
ing the entire year on a war-research as-
signment, could give only the time neces-
sary to consider details of maintenance of
the cosmic-ray meters. Miss Isabelle Lange,
despite the necessity of giving the greater
part of her time to compilations concerned
with war research, continued the necessary
control checks of data received. The mag-
netic-storm effect of March 1, 1942, reported
on last year, was further confirmed by
data received since that report from God-
havn and Christchurch. This was the first
definite case of a latitude-effect in cosmic-
ray changes occurring during magnetic
storms, and was the first recorded case of
large sudden simultaneous increases in
cosmic-ray intensity at widely separated
stations.

Professor Victor F. Hess and associates
at Fordham University further confirmed
results previously reported on the latitude-
effect, and found also a longitude-effect.
It was concluded that the magnitude of
temperature-coefficients of cosmic-ray in-
tensities depends less on geomagnetic lati-
tude than on the distribution of air-masses
in the upper atmosphere. The model-C
meter used on the Santa Ana was removed

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

in April 1943 at San Francisco and shipped
to Professor Compton at the University
of Chicago.

At the Bartol Research Foundation Dr.
Thomas H. Johnson and associates com-
pleted the high-pressure cloud-chamber for
use under pressures as great as 200 at-
mospheres. Five hundred photographs at
a pressure of no atmospheres were taken,
and a statistical study of these is under
way. A statistical analysis of some 40,000
photographs made with the 24-inch cloud-
chamber was begun.

At New York University Professor S. A.
Korfr constructed a large boron trifluoride
counter, with which the neutron-intensity
at sea-level was studied; this counter
showed an improvement in sensitivity by
a factor of 7 over previous determinations.
Correlations were established between the
cosmic rays at sea-level, when corrected
for sea-level barometric pressure, and the
fluctuations in the pressure at given levels
in the upper atmosphere.

Dr. Robert A. Millikan and his associates
and students at the California Institute of
Technology continued, as far as urgent
war-research demands permitted, the study
of the origin of cosmic rays on the hypoth-
esis proposed two years ago; confirmatory
evidence was found. Improved resolution
of the cloud-chamber method of measur-
ing masses of mesotrons and the trans-
formations of energy resulting in their
birth and disappearance was obtained. Pre-
liminary measurements were made of the
curvature of 135 tracks in a magnetic field
of 4500 gauss.

Dr. C. E. Nielsen and Dr. Wilson M.
Powell at the University of California
found time to determine the maximum
values of slow mesotrons through the
examination of some 7000 photographs
made on Mount Evans at 14,100 feet and
1800 photographs made at Summit Lake

at 12,700 feet (see Year Book No. 41,
p. 102).

Grateful acknowledgment is made to
the directors and members of organiza-
tions which continued their contributions
and services to the program; these include
the Danish Meteorological Institute, the
National Astronomical Observatory of
Mexico, the New Zealand Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research, and the
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The Consul-General of Denmark in New
York and the United States Coast Guard
were most helpful in connection with the
forwarding of the necessary supplies for
operation and maintenance of the observa-
tory at Godhavn.

W. S. Adams

J. A. Fleming, Chairman

F. E. Wright

Statistical Investigations of Cosmic-Ray
Variations

S. E. FORBUSH AND IsABELLE LaNGE

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
Washington, District of Columbia

Instruments. Operation of the Carnegie
Institution's precision cosmic-ray meters
was continued at the following stations:
Cheltenham (Maryland, United States)
Magnetic Observatory of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, meter C-i,
John Hershberger in charge; Huancayo
(Peru) Magnetic Observatory of the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Car-
negie Institution of Washington, meter
C-2, P. G. Ledig in charge; National As-
tronomical Observatory of Mexico at Teo-
loyucan (D. F., Mexico), meter C-4, Dr.
Joaquin Gallo in charge; Amberley Branch
of the Christchurch (New Zealand) Mag-
netic Observatory of the Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research, metei
C-5, J. W. Beagley in charge; Godhavn
(Greenland) Magnetic Observatory of the

SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES

Danish Meteorological Institute, meter C-6,
K. Thiesen and H. P. Barfod in charge.

Reduction of data. Scalings and tabula-
tions of hourly values of cosmic-ray ioniza-
tion, bursts, and barometric pressure could
not be kept current owing to pressure of
war work.

Investigations. The striking example of
the magnetic-storm effect on cosmic data
which occurred during the magnetic storm
beginning at 7.5 11 GMT March 1, 1942,
and which was mentioned in last year's
report, has been further confirmed by data
subsequently received from Godhavn and
Christchurch. In addition to the world-
wide decrease which has often been ob-
served in cosmic-ray intensity during the
main phase of magnetic storms, the cosmic-
ray intensity at Godhavn, Cheltenham, and
Christchurch increased suddenly from 6
to 8 per cent simultaneously at about io h
GMT, February 28, and again at about 05 11
GMT, March 7, 1942. The cosmic-ray in-
tensity decreased to its previous value in
about six or eight hours. These two strik-
ing increases were not observed at Huan-
cayo. This appears to be the first definite
case of a latitude-effect in cosmic-ray
changes occurring during magnetic storms,
and also the first case of large sudden
increases in cosmic-ray intensity observed
simultaneously at several widely separated
stations. These increases are probably the
result of the magnetic effect on cosmic-
ray trajectories due to eastward-flowing
ring-currents, or their magnetic equivalents
of the type required to explain the world-
wide increase in horizontal magnetic in-
tensity which usually precedes the main
phase of magnetic storms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lange, I., and S. E. Forbush. Further note on
the effect on cosmic-ray intensity of the
magnetic storm of March 1, 1942. Terr.
Mag., vol. 47, pp. 331-334 (1942).

Report on Cosmic-Ray Work

Victor F. Hess
Fordham University, New Yor\, N. Y.

Studies on cosmic-ray intensities aboard
the "Santa Ana" between New Yor\ and
Chile, by Edward B. Berry and V. F.
Hess. The results of the registrations of
cosmic-ray intensities with a model-C
meter between New York and Chile from
September 1940 to February 1942 were
evaluated and published in the Journal of
Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric
Electricity (September 1942). The lati-
tude-effect was 8.3 per cent. A longitude-
effect of 1.5 per cent between 75 ° west
and 145 ° west was also found. The curve
of temperature-coefficients was found to
be symmetrical about 23 ° north of the
geomagnetic equator, in contrast with a
similar curve found by P. S. Gill for the
Pacific, which is symmetrical about the
geomagnetic equator.

It was concluded that the magnitude
of the temperature-coefficient of cosmic-
ray intensities depends less on geomag-
netic latitude than on the distribution of
air-masses in the upper atmosphere. Varia-
tions of cosmic-ray intensity during the
severe magnetic storm of March 1, 1942
were found, in good agreement with those
reported by other observers.

The model-C meter was removed from
the Santa Ana in April 1943 by Rev. E. B.
Berry (of Fordham University) in San
Francisco and shipped to Dr. A. H. Comp-
ton at the University of Chicago.

Cosmic-ray studies with dual telescope
(1943), by F. A. Benedetto. Work during
the year 1943 has been confined to verifi-
cation of results previously reported by
Hess and Benedetto and by Benedetto,
Altmann, and Hess (1942). The dual
telescope was taken apart and completely
overhauled in the fall of 1942 and obser-
vations were taken from January to August

6 4

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

1943. The results were in substantial agree-
ment with the earlier registrations obtained
with the same apparatus. These studies
indicate that closer correlation is obtained
by integration of the daily temperature-
versus-pressure plot from the ground up to
four-fifths level of the daily atmosphere
(about 1 010 to 202 mb) than by taking
smaller intervals. The daily values of tem-
perature thus obtained are referred to as
"mass-temperatures." Previous investiga-
tors have calculated the temperature-coeffi-
cient of the mesotron-component confining
themselves principally to either the tem-
perature at the surface or the temperature
prevailing at some particular level of the
atmosphere.

Results with mass-temperatures, how-
ever, show that both a higher correlation-
coefficient (r) and a higher value of the
temperature-coefficient (a) are obtained by
using mass-temperatures than by the
former methods. It is also indicated that
a determination of the proper lifetime
value for the mesotron based on the tem-
perature-coefficient should take into con-
sideration the production, absorption, and
energy spectrum of the mesotron through-
out the atmosphere, and that the simpli-
fying assumption of the mesotron pro-
duction at a certain "preferred" level
instead of continuously throughout the
atmosphere should be expanded into a
more general treatment involving these
distributions. It is hoped that further work
along these lines can be undertaken after
the war.

Grateful acknowledgment is made to
Dr. W. F. G. Swann for making available
the facilities of the Bartol Research Foun-
dation in the repair of a number of Geiger-
Mueller tubes.

Results obtained during January to
August 1943 will appear in an early issue
of the Physical Review.

Gish-Hess ionization-meter . This instru-

ment, to be used with three ionization-
vessels of different dimensions, was com-
pleted in the summer of 1942 and was
studied in its performance by O. H. Gish
and K. L. Sherman at the Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism before it was
taken over by V. F. Hess in August 1942.
A report on these studies and on the cali-
brations was given by Gish and Sherman.

V. F. Hess began experiments in the
field with this instrument in the spring
of 1943. Experiments on the variations
of the total ionization at points in the
New York area and experiments over
rocks are in progress.

The author wishes to acknowledge the
valuable aid of the Director, Assistant
Director, and their associates in the De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism in
his work.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berry, Edward B., and Victor F. Hess. Study
of cosmic rays between New York and Chile.
Terr. Mag., vol, 47, pp. 251-256 (1942).

Hess, Victor F. The interior of the Earth,
viewed in relation to earthquake causes. II.
What radioactivity tells us about the in-
terior of the Earth. Jour. Applied Phys.,
vol. 14, pp. 1 16-120 (1943).

Studies of Cosmic Rays

Thomas H. Johnson

Bartol Research Foundation of the Fran\lin
Institute, Swarthmore , Pennsylvania

Because of war research and war teach-
ing, the projected program of cosmic-ray
research had to be sharply curtailed. Never-
theless some progress was made.

The high-pressure cloud-chamber begun
in 1941 was completed and put into opera-
tion with results that exceeded expecta-
tions. This chamber embodied a new
design which made it possible to exceed
the pressures previously used in large cloud
chambers by a very considerable factor,

SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES

and it was constructed for the purpose of
increasing the rate of photographing some
of the rare cosmic-ray phenomena, such as
mesotron-stoppages in the gas and their
disintegrations. The present chamber is
12 inches in diameter and is designed to
run at a pressure of 200 atmospheres.
Under this pressure each track has a 200-
fold increase in probability of displaying
some interesting feature as compared with
tracks taken at normal pressure, and be-
cause of the low rate of diffusion of ions
at high pressure and the almost negligible
turbulence consequential to the low ex-
pansion-ratio, the period of sensitivity of
this chamber is increased to such an extent
that every photograph contains several
tracks. Thus the rate of photographing
mesotron-stoppages in the gas has been
increased from something of the order of
one track per annum to one track every
day or two. During about one month of
operation of the chamber at a pressure
of no atmospheres, 500 photographs were
taken. Some of these have already been
reported, but the statistics of the group
as a whole is still under study.

The work of the year has also included
the analysis of 40,000 photographs taken
with a 24-inch cloud-chamber operating at
a pressure of about one atmosphere. A
report of these statistics is in the course of
preparation.

The work has been carried on prin-
cipally by Ralph P. Shutt, who has been
engaged on these studies full time for
part of the year and part time during a
period of war teaching; and by Dr. Sergio
de Benedetti, who was engaged for either
full or part time prior to January 1943.

-' ■ ■ - t

BIBLIOGRAPHY

de Benedetti, S., T. H. Johnson, and R. P.
Shutt. Some results obtained with a new
high-pressure cloud-chamber. (Abstract)
Phys. Rev., vol. 63, p. 222 (1943).

Johnson, T. H., S. de Benedetti, and R. P.
Shutt. A hydrostatically supported cloud-
chamber of new design for operation at high
pressures. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 14, pp. 265-

271 (i943)-

R. P. Shutt, and S. de Benedetti. A

high-pressure cloud-chamber of new design.
(Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 63, p. 222 (1943).

Shutt, R. P., S. de Benedetti, and T. H. John-
son. Cloud-chamber track of a decaying
mesotron. Phys. Rev., vol. 62, pp. 552-553
(1942).

Cosmic-Ray Investigations

S. A. Korff
New Yor\ University, New Yor\ 53, N. Y.

The study of cosmic rays carried out
between July 1, 1942 and June 30, 1943,
with the aid of funds administered by
the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
consists of two phases: (1) a determina-
tion of the intensity of neutrons produced
by the cosmic radiation at sea-level, and
(2) the construction of a differential coun-
ter-telescope for the purpose of analyzing
the correlation between the fluctuations in
the cosmic-ray intensity at sea-level and
the variables of the meteorology of the
upper atmosphere.

Study of cosmic-ray neutrons at sea-level.
Existing measurements of the cosmic-ray-
neutron intensity at sea-level have been
unsatisfactory, partly because of the lack of
sensitivity of the detecting equipment and
partly also since the measurements were
not so made as to permit unique rates of
production of the neutrons to be deter-
mined. In order to obtain measurements
satisfactory on these two scores, a large
boron trifluoride counter was constructed,
75 cm in effective length and 15 cm in
diameter. With this counter the neutron-
intensity at sea-level was studied by sur-
rounding it completely with paraffin 30 or
more cm thick and then determining the
counting-rates of the arrangement with
and without shields of cadmium and boron.
The counter was of such efficiency that

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

approximately n neutrons per minute
were detected — an improvement in sen-
sitivity by a factor of 7 over previous
determinations. This arrangement made
it possible to determine the rate of pro-
duction of neutrons by cosmic rays per
gram per second in paraffin at sea-level.
It is believed that the value obtained in
this manner is accurate to about 10 per
cent. This will provide a basis for ascer-
taining the number of neutrons produced
at other elevations. The characteristics of
very large counters were also studied in
this investigation.

Investigation of the connection between
upper-air meteorology and cosmic-ray in-
tensity at sea4evel. It will be recalled that,
since the majority of cosmic rays reaching
sea-level consist of mesotrons, the number
reaching sea-level is determined not only
by the loss of energy due to ionization,
but also by the numbers which disappear
by decay. The amount of decay which a
given beam experiences depends on the
length of path and on the energy of these
particles. There is a complex relation be-
tween the ionization-loss and the loss due
to decay. In order to analyze the situation,
a twin differential cosmic-ray telescope
was constructed in which the intensity in
a vertical beam could be measured with
the various amounts of lead. By subtract-
ing the intensity observed with one amount
of lead from that observed with a smaller
amount, a definite energy-band in the
radiation could be isolated and the fluctua-
tions in this band studied in connection
with the meteorological variables obtained
from the radiosonde flights. This analysis
determines a ratio of mass to lifetime, tak-
ing account of the variation in energy along
the beam. Correlations were established
between the cosmic-ray intensity at sea-
level, when corrected for sea-level baro-
metric pressure, and the fluctuations in
the pressure at given levels in the upper
atmosphere.

Papers entitled "The intensity of neu-
trons produced by cosmic radiation at
sea-level" and "An analysis of mesotron
lifetime-to-mass ratio by a differential tele-
scope" and a "Report on cosmic-ray obser-
vations on the U. S. Antarctic Expedition"
are in preparation for publication.

Personnel. Data obtained with the Mil-
likan-Neher cosmic-ray meters were re-
duced by Ernest K. Smith. Those obtained
with the cosmic-ray telescope and the cor-
relations with the meteorological variables
were worked out by John White. Messrs.
K. and M. Kupferberg and T. Swearingen
constructed the twin differential telescope
and K. Kupferberg worked out much of
the analysis of the results. M. Kupferberg
made the measurements of neutron-inten-
sity at sea-level.

Studies of Cosmic Rays

Robert A. Millikan and Carl D. Anderson

California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, California

On account of the practically complete
absorption in war activities of all the
members of the cosmic-ray group of work-
ers at the California Institute of Tech-
nology, no general report on experimental
accomplishment in this field from July 1,
1942 to July 1, 1943 can be made. Some
time has been found, however, for analyz-
ing the results of experiments made late
in 1941 and through April 1942, and for
getting the results into proper channels of
publication. The summary of the present
status of the two large cosmic-ray under-
takings is as follows :

Origin of cosmic rays, by Robert A.
Millikan, H. Victor Neher, and William
H. Pickering. The hypothesis proposed as
to the origin of cosmic rays is that whereas
the evolution of energy by the stars is
maintained, as Bethe has recently shown,
by the partial transformation within the
stars of the rest-mass energy of hydrogen

SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES 67

into radiant energy through the building United States, which were described briefly

of helium, carbon, and other atoms out in Year Book No. 41 and reported in full

of hydrogen and the release through this in the Physical Review, vol. 63, pp. 234-

process of the so-called "packing-fraction" 245 (1943). The experimental findings

energy, the energy of cosmic rays, on the were in accord with the predictions that,

other hand, is maintained by the occasional since the hypothetical silicon-annihilation

complete transformation in interstellar rays should have enough energy (13.2

space of the rest-mass energy of the atoms be-v) to get vertically through the Earth's

of helium, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and magnetic field at the equator in Peru,

silicon (and presumably in small amounts though not in India, there should be

of heavier aggregates) into cosmic rays; found, both at sea-level and at all altitudes

each such event presumably creating an i n the Americas, when vertically incoming

electron pair, though an occasional photon rays a l on e are under test, a very long

pair, or even heavier-particle pair, need not plateau of uniform cosmic-ray intensities

necessarily be excluded. extending north from Mollendo, Peru to

The foregoing hypothesis requires that about the latitude of Victoria, Mexico

the cosmic rays of measurable energy re- (magnetic latitude 32? 8 north); that there

veal a spectral distribution of five distinct, tne strong band due to oxygen-annihilation

definitely measurable bands, as follows: rays ^ be „ v ) should first appear, to be

(1) a band of rays each having an energy f ollo wed, when the magnetic latitude of

of 1.9 billion electron-volts (be-v), pro- 40 o north had been reacned? by the full

duced by the annihilation, or complete entnmce of ^ nitrogen _annihilation band

transformation, in interstellar space of the / C r 1 \ .1 „ ■ • r t>j

' riii- / ("•" be-v); that in going from Pasadena

rest-mass energy or the helium atom; (2) / . 1 . 1 .1 \ c «.

. &/ M ., . , , ' v / (magnetic latitude 40.7 north) to St.

a carbon-atom-anmhilation band, or energy ^ TTt , , /0 ., N

r , /J . i 1 r Oeorge, Utah, but 4.1 (200 miles) nearer
=5.0 be-v; (2) a nitrogen-atom band, or , , . , , ,
J , r \ 1 / a , 1 to the north magnetic pole, the carbon-
energy 6.6 be-v; (4) an oxygen-atom band, .1 -i • 1 1 / /-1 \ 1 11

r 1 1 //;•■■ .i- annihilation band (s.6 be-v) should appear,

or energy 7.5 be-v; and (5) a silicon-atom , r „ . , J . / . rr

1 1 £ i_ to be rollowed by a plateau clear up to

band, or energy 13.2 be-v. . 1 « i-

^, , , • r 1 1 magnetic latitude S4 north, when hehum-

ihe hypothesis requires, turther, that .... . / «o 1 \ 1 11

, 1 11 1 • t i- r -ii annihilation rays (1.00 be-v) should appear,

there should be in India, tor vertically , v y 1

incoming rays, between the magnetic equa- The P lateau between St ' Geor S e and
tor and magnetic latitude about 20° north, Pocatell ° (magnetic latitude 51 ° north),
a plateau of cosmic-ray intensity not chang- corresponding to the absence of abundant
ing with latitude. This plateau the experi- atoms o£ atomic wei S ht between that of
ments in India in 1939-1940 brought to carbon and that of helium, and the definite
light; also, the appearance between Agra appearance of a new band between Omaha
(magnetic latitude i7?3 north) and Pesha- (magnetic latitude 51 ?3 north) and Bis-
war (magnetic latitude 25 north) of a marck (magnetic latitude 56 north),
new cosmic-ray band which was identified brought to light in electroscope flights at
with the silicon band of energy 13.2 be-v. Omaha and Bismarck, constitute new and
These results were reported in Year Book strong evidence that the incoming charged
No. 40, and more fully in the Physical particles are electrons, rather than protons
Review, vol. 61, pp. 397-407 (1942). or other heavy particles; for in the case
In spite of absorption in war work, it of helium there is not enough mass avail-
was possible in December 1941 and March able to permit any heavier particle (proton
1942 to make tests in Mexico and in the or mesotron) to acquire the energy of 1.88

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

be-v that is needed to get to Earth at about
latitude 54 .

Improvement in the resolution of the
cloud-chamber method of measuring the
masses of mesotrons and the energy -trans-
formations resulting in both their birth
and disappearance, by C. D. Anderson,
Seth Neddermeyer, and Leon Katz. About
2000 test stereoscopic photographs have been
made with the 24-inch cloud-chamber for
the purpose of (1) determining the special
properties of the expansion-chamber itself,
(2) developing a light-source, (3) provid-
ing a suitable Geiger-counter control-cir-
cuit, (4) studying the effects of changes in
temperature on the distortion of the tracks,
and (5) studying various other details.

The chamber produces clear and sharp
tracks throughout its whole area. A light-
source has been developed which consists
of two argon-filled quartz tubes, through
each of which a condenser of 48 micro-
farads capacity and charged to 5000 volts
is discharged. This source operates with
complete reliability for several thousand
flashes and provides sufficient illumination
to register tracks with a lens opening of
F/8, which is required to bring the whole
depth of the chamber into focus.

As with previous cloud-chamber work,
the limit of resolution of the measure-
ments is determined by the distortions of
the tracks caused by motions of the gas
in the chamber. These motions have been
reduced by various means, but further
work on this point is required in order to
obtain the maximum precision in the meas-
urements made with this equipment.
When work is again taken up, it is planned,
as a first step, to provide a careful control
of temperature of the whole chamber.

Preliminary measurements of curvature
of 135 tracks in a magnetic field of 4500
gauss have given the results shown in the
accompanying table. More measurements
are needed to determine with certainty

whether or not the maxima and minima
in the energy-distribution curve repre-
sented by these data are real. On the basis
of the present data it seems unlikely that
they are due simply to statistical fluc-
tuations.

Energy interval
in units of 10 9

NO. OF TRACKS

ELECTRON-VOLTS

Negative

. Positive

Total

0.00-0.45

0.46-0.95

0.96-1.45

1.46-1.95

1.96-2.45

2.46-2.95

2.96-3.45 .......

3.46-3.95

3.96-4.95

4.96-6.95

0.5

0.75

1.25

6.96-9.45

0.3

0.6

Above 9.45

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Katz, L., R. V. Adams, Jr., and W. E. Deeds.
Preliminary energy distribution curve of
cosmic rays. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 63,
p. 140 (1943).

Millikan, Robert A., H. Victor Neher, and
William H. Pickering. The origin of cos-
mic rays. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 63,
p. 140 (1943)-

Further tests of the atom-
annihilation hypothesis as to the origin of
the cosmic rays. Phys. Rev., vol. 63, pp. 234-

245 (i943)-

Origin of cosmic rays.

Nature, vol. 151, pp. 663-664 (1943).

Pickering, William H. An improved cosmic-
ray radio sonde. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol.
63, p. 140 (1943)-

An improved cosmic-ray radio sonde.

Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 14, pp. 171-173 (1943).

Mass of the Mesotron

Carl E. Nielsen and Wilson M. Powell
University of California, Berkeley, California

An expedition to Mount Evans (see
Year Book No. 41, p. 102) was made for

SPECIAL PROJECTS: TERRESTRIAL SCIENCES

6 9

the primary purpose of obtaining observa-
tions on the mass of the mesotron. The
ionization and momentum of cosmic rays
were observed simultaneously in a Wilson
cloud-chamber by photographing tracks
curved by a magnetic field of 2500 oersted,
and diffused sufficiently to permit photo-
graphic resolution of single droplets. A
delay of ^0.15 second between reduction
of the clearing field from ~2o v/cm to
~2 v/cm and expansion of the chamber
was provided. Most of the photographs
were of random expansions, and this time
of reduced clearing field corresponds to
the interval before expansion during which
a track remains to be observed.

Determination of mass from ionization
and curvature depends upon a knowledge
of the relation between ionization and
speed.

Approximately 7000 photographs were
taken on Mount Evans, at an elevation of
14,100 feet, and 1800 were taken at Summit
Lake, at an elevation of 12,700 feet. The
photographs show numerous heavily ioniz-
ing tracks with negligible curvature pro-
duced by particles — presumably protons —
much heavier than mesotrons. These heavy
tracks were present in about 8 per cent of
the pictures at 14,100 feet and in about 4
per cent of those at 12,700 feet. Each
picture records events in an interval ^0.3
sec, and in a volume ^1500 cc. Only six
heavily ionizing mesotrons have yet been
identified. Since they are quite conspicu-
ous, it is probable that not many more will
be found by additional study of the pic-
tures. Most of the heavy tracks thus do
not represent slow mesotrons; in fact, the
fraction of slow mesotrons may not greatly
exceed the figure 0.001 found by E. J.
Williams at sea-level.

Four of these slow mesotrons yield mass
values determined as 145 to 210 (probable
errors ±15 to ±30) using the formula of
Corson and Brode {Physical Review, vol.

53, p. 773, 1938), and as 155 to 230 (prob-
able errors ± 15 to ±30) using the formula
of Williams {Proceedings of the Royal
Society, vol. A 172, p. 194, 1939). The
probable errors are estimated to include
chamber distortion of curvature, and statis-
tical uncertainty deriving from the finite
number of droplets counted. Curvature
was measured by plotting micrometer
readings of coordinates along the track
and fitting a curve to the points by the
method of least squares. The curvature
of one track, for example, was determined
from 13 points, with a probable error in
fitting of 3.5 per cent; the ionization of
this track was determined by a count of
335 droplets, hence the statistical error is
~5 per cent (or more, since each ion is
not the result of a single independent
event).

We are grateful to all who have as-
sisted with this experiment, and to the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, the
Fund for Astrophysical Research, and the
Rumford Fund of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences for generous financial

support.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nielsen, C. E. Efficiency of positive and nega-
tive ions as condensation-nuclei in the Wil-
son cloud chamber. (Abstract) Phys. Rev.,
vol. 61, p. 202 (1942).

and Wilson M. Powell. Mesotron mass

and heavy tracks on Mt. Evans. Phys. Rev.,
vol. 63, pp. 384-385 (1943); (abstract) Phys.
Rev., vol. 63, p. 140 (1943).

Powell, W. M. Electrons and heavier particles
at 14,125 feet. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 61,
p. 202 (1942).

Production of mesotrons, "stars," cascade

showers produced by penetrating rays, slow
protons, evidence for the disintegration elec-
tron. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 61, p. 206
(1942).

Stars and slow protons at 14,125 feet.

Phys. Rev., vol. 61, pp. 670-671 (1942).

Application of the Edgerton lamp to drop-
let counting. (Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 62,
p. 305 (1942).

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

Central Laboratory located at Stanford University, California
H. A. SPOEHR, Chairman

In complete accord with the pattern of vast and growing majority, who have not

activities of the Institution during this experienced the want of food, take this

period of emergency, the dominant ques- commodity for granted, without any re-

tion in this Division has been, What con- gard for the tremendous complexities in-

tribution can plant biology make to the volved in its production and distribution,

war effort ? The more immediate aspects The relatively very mild restrictions which

of the present conflict have been charac- it has been necessary to impose upon the

terized by extraordinarily complex tech- population of this country during the

nical developments. The branches of sci- present emergency have clearly revealed

ence basic to these developments have widespread misconceptions regarding the

found ready application for their knowl- fundamentals of food production for an

edge and skills. By contrast, the bio- industrial population,

logical phases of the conflict have been The only standard of living which is at

slower in making themselves apparent, all basic is the three to five thousand

and as a consequence the biological sci- calories, in the form of a diet adequate

ences, aside from medicine, have as yet to maintain human life. Man, from the

made relatively little direct contribution, very biological nature of his being, can

In its more immediate application to the never free himself from dependence on
material aspects of human life and the this supply of nourishment, and this rests
struggle for existence, plant biology con- entirely upon the functioning of the green
tributes essentially to the problem of plant. Man stands high in the pyramid of
nutrition. Beyond that, it contributes life. It requires innumerable plants to
to the whole matter of the produc- produce a farm animal, and many farm
tion of carbonaceous material, which, animals to maintain a human life. And
either in the form of highly complex this dependence applies to the entire
carbon compounds, or as raw material for human species, of whatever race or color,
further elaboration, constitutes the basis In this pyramid of life it is the proportions
of a large part of modern industry. In of the base which determines the survival
the great urge for attaining immediate of some two thousand million souls, each
results of industrial value, the fact has of whom demands his three thousand
been too readily overlooked that, whether calories of food. In all the confusion of
for the feeding of a nation or for the syn- ideas which this war has produced, this
thesis of rubber and plastics, the ultimate idea stands constantly more clearly re-
source of all the materials is the plant, vealed. If it is not realized and acted upon
Sooner or later, our economic planning by those responsible for the future, the four
will be obliged to take this fact into freedoms will be but empty shibboleths,
consideration. In so vast and complicated a situation

The question of the food supply pre- as is presented by the general problem

sents the simpler case. The relations be- of the relation of plants to man's well-

tween plant, farm, and food are in a being, a small group of scientific workers

very general way familiar to all. Yet a can at best hope for little more than

7 1

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

progress in some particular aspects of the
larger problem. This is not the type of
problem that will be "solved" by a stroke
of scientific genius or through some for-
tunate chance discovery. Its ramifications
are as broad and involved as life itself.
It is rather through the accretion of knowl-
edge in many correlated fields, through
applying the findings of one branch of
science to those of another, and thus
"cross-fertilizing" different approaches to
the central problem, that sound advance
can be expected.

During the past year several projects
have been undertaken in this Division
with a view to applying to wider useful-
ness the results and techniques which have
been developed in specialized fields. In
the field of photosynthetic investigations,
a study has been made of the materials
produced by diatoms and other algae. In
experimental taxonomy, some purely sci-
entific results obtained in the program of
evolutionary studies are being applied to
the breeding of new forage grasses of
importance for food production.

It is rather difficult to realize that in
the production of carbonaceous material
on the earth, marine diatoms and other
algae play a role which is probably quite
as important as that of land plants. Dia-
toms are the principal photosynthetic or-
ganisms over about two-thirds of the earth's
surface, and they constitute the primary
source of food for life in the sea. The
investigations which have been carried out
during the past year have demonstrated
that diatoms and associated organisms
possess a photosynthetic apparatus which,
in respect to the nature of the pigments,
shows some remarkable differences from
that of land plants. It remains to be de-
termined whether these differences in the
photosynthetic apparatus are reflected in
the nature of the products formed and

in the mechanism of the photosynthetic
process.

The investigations on diatoms and other
algae have also been directed to the de-
termination of the nature of the organic
material which is produced by these or-
ganisms. In this connection an extensive
series of experiments has been carried out
to establish to what extent the composition
of these organisms can be influenced by
different environmental conditions. For.
example, can conditions be found under
which they produce materially larger
quantities of fats or hydrocarbons than
normally ? As a matter of experience these
lower organisms have been found to show
a high degree of flexibility in regard to
the conditions under which they can live,
and similarly to show very considerable
variation in their composition under these
different conditions. It is now possible,
therefore, to select a set of culture con-
ditions (certain mineral nutrients, carbon
dioxide concentration, and light intensity,
for example) and obtain, with a high
degree of reproducibility, a culture of the
organism having a certain composition,
and under another set of conditions to
obtain a culture of quite another com-
position.

Mention may be made of one direction
in which the results obtained from these
experiments may be of use. It has been
assumed for a long time that some of
our petroleum deposits owe their origin
to the activity of diatoms during past
geological eras. This assumption consti-
tutes an important part of geological
theory, and on it considerable reliance is
placed for exploration of new oil fields.
Yet virtually nothing is known concern-
ing the materials produced by the living
diatoms. These geological theories are
largely a matter of inference, yet they
constitute important tools for decidedly
practical ends. One essential feature of

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

these theories, namely the functioning of
the diatoms, remains beyond the practical
test of the geologist. That test is primarily
a biochemical task. An experimental con-
tribution to our knowledge of the mode
of functioning of diatoms and the nature
of the substances produced by them, with
some regard to the geological implica-
tions, may give added support to the
current geological theories or indicate
how they should be modified.

During the past year the program in
experimental taxonomy has advanced to
an analysis of relationship between natural
plant units of higher order, up through
the genus. It is now clear that in the plant
kingdom the tempo of evolution may
vary greatly, depending on the stage of
development that a group has attained. At
one extreme there is the very slow accumu-
lation of hereditary differences through
mutation, gene exchange through hybridi-
zation, and natural selection, which ulti-
mately may result in the development of
new species. At the other extreme, new
species may arise suddenly through the
addition of all the chromosomes of distinct
species following hybridization, a process
called amphiploidy. Before new species
can arise by this method, however, their
parents must pass through an age-long
process of differentiation, during which
their entire sets of chromosomes, instead
of the genes, become the evolutionary
building units.

An inquiry into the requirements for
successful amphiploidy was prompted by
the origination of three new Madiinae in
this laboratory by this method. The re-
sulting survey, including other cases on
record, clarified the relations between re-
motely connected species complexes, and
thereby rounded out the study on the
principles that govern the various degrees
of relationship that can be experimentally
determined.

Amphiploidy has been a highly im-
portant mechanism in plant evolution,
enabling many groups to pyramid their
chromosome sets in progressively higher
series, thereby combining the inheritances
of their members. Also, amphiploids com-
bine the new vigor of hybridity with the
stability of independent species. Conse-
quently, they are frequently superior in
performance to their parents and more
adaptable, especially when they have
brought together the inheritances of species
suited to ecologically different environ-
ments.

Many of our most important crop plants
appear to have evolved by this process,
and they belong to genera that have
reached the stage of evolutionary maturity
where amphiploidy is successful. Plant
breeding by the addition of unbroken sets
of chromosomes of remotely related species
from such genera offers promise of better
plants for the horticulturist, the agrono-
mist, and the soil conservationist. This
method also makes it possible to combine
the inheritances of forms from extreme
climates and habitats to produce new ones
well adapted for intermediate environ-
ments, thereby utilizing for breeding pur-
poses previously untapped supplies of
genes.

A program of breeding range grasses
has been initiated this year, in which these
principles are applied. The experiments
are being conducted in cooperation with
the Soil Conservation Service of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, which is sup-
plying much of the breeding stock. The
grasses used are mostly native races from
the Pacific Northwest that have been
tested in regional nurseries and found to
be superior. In addition, strains from the
Institution's transplant station transect are
being used. The plan is for the Institution
staff to make the crossings and to test the
constancy of the products. These are then

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

to be turned over to the Soil Conservation
Service for propagation, testing, and dis-
semination. In the few crossings that have
been attempted this year, races of blue-
grass, the genus Poa, were employed.
These crossings are to be extended next
year, and the wheat grasses (Agropyron)
are to be included, for members of this
genus, like Poa, are economically of great
importance and supposedly suitable for
improvement through controlled amphi-
ploidy.

The work of completing the program
on desert investigations has been con-
siderably hampered by the difficulty of
automobile travel for field investigation.
A large amount of material has been pre-
pared for publication covering the exten-
sive studies of the distributional, taxo-
nomic, and geographical features of the
Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts. The
vegetation of deserts and semideserts is
particularly noted for the variety of plant
types it displays. One of the most im-
portant and yet most difficult problems of
the desert is the attempt to find the geo-
graphic source of its various plant types
and to learn something of the stages by
which their special modifications have
come about. Therefore, considerable time
has been given to assembling the facts
which bear on this problem. The questions
of origin, movement, and modification
are being considered in close connection
with what is known of the desert environ-
ment and of the ecological behavior of
desert plants.

The field studies in paleobotany have
also suffered because of the inability to
travel by automobile and because much
of Dr. Chaney's time has been taken up
with work connected with the war. The
discovery of the remains of a plant closely
resembling the prickly pear, Opuntia, in
sediments which date back to the Middle
Eocene is very remarkable. Usually only

plants with definitely woody stems, or
with hard leaves and fruits, are likely to
be preserved in the rocks. These struc-
tures must be buried in sediments or thev
will soon be destroyed by decay. Trees
which live near lakes or streams more
readily become a part of the fossil record
than those which live on the uplands
or in deserts. Even if they have resistant
structures, plants growing far from sites
of sedimentary deposition seldom leave the
imprint of their existence in the rocks.
It is not surprising that members of the
cactus family are rarely reported as fossils.
Their fleshy stems are poorly suited to
preservation, and they commonly live in
exposed or hilly situations where erosion
rather than deposition is going on.

The Cactaceae have highly specialized
vegetative structures, and might be ex-
pected to have evolved in comparatively
late geologic time, coincidentally with the
development of widespread aridity in the
Pliocene epoch. If, as botanists have sup-
posed, the fleshy, almost leafless stems of
the cactus are a response to aridity, it
seems clear that there have been deserts
and desert specialization far back into the
early days of angiosperm development. Of
the fossil material collected by Mr. Earl
Douglass in the twenties, and recently
studied by Dr. Chaney, one specimen shows
five attached joints, two of which are
interpreted as representing reproductive
structures. No evidence of spines has been
noted, though areoles like those to which
spines are attached in living cacti may be
noted on the fossil stems. Several minor
differences between these ancient plants
and the modern prickly pear seem to
justify their reference to a new genus,
Eopuntia — the dawn cactus.

Such rare discoveries, representing the
plants which lived beyond the limits of
the humid forests, suggest the nature of

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

past vegetation in environments which plication of climatic and topographic di-

are almost completely unknown. This versity in the Eocene, it provides addi-

ancient cactus material also projects back tional background for our understanding

to an early epoch the date of high speciali- of the evolution of varied races of mam-

zation in flowering plants. With its im- mals in the early days of our era.

BIOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS

H. A. Spoehr, J. H. C. Smith, H. H. Strain, W. M. Manning, H. W. Milner, and G. J. Hardin

Biochemistry of Algae

It has long been recognized that diatoms
and other algae play a very important
role in the carbon economy of the earth.
Over the major part of the earth's surface
these plants are the principal photosyn-
thetic organisms. They constitute the pri-
mary food for life in the sea and in the
lakes, and are presumed to have had an
important part in the formation of pe-
troleum. Yet very little is known regard-
ing the biochemistry of these organisms,
of what materials they are composed, what
substances are formed in the course of
their photosynthetic activity, and in what
respects they differ chemically from land
plants. The latter, probably because they
constitute man's first and chief source of
materials for food and the arts, have been
subjected to extensive investigation. Land
plants also exhibit tremendous diversity
in form and structure, and in a measure
this diversity is reflected in a great variety
of chemical compounds which are formed
in the bodies of the plants and for which
they have become significant to man. In
at least one respect, however, land plants,
of even the most diverse character, show
a remarkable uniformity, namely in the
composition of their photosynthetic ap-
paratus, more particularly their chloroplast
pigments. On the other hand, marine
plants, which show much less diversifica-
tion in their vegetative features than do
land plants, have now been found to have
photosynthetic pigments which differ from
those of land plants and which vary be-

tween one species of marine organism and
another.

The significance of these differences in
photosynthetic apparatus between land and
aquatic plants is as yet not clear. There
may be clues here to aid in unraveling
the evolutionary development of plants
from past geological eras and in establish-
ing the phylogenetic relationships of the
marine organisms themselves. It may be
that associated with these differences in
the photosynthetic apparatus will be found
variations in the photosynthetic process
itself and in the substances which are
produced. The elucidation of these prob-
lems is primarily dependent upon careful
experimentation.

For experimental purposes algae offer
some striking advantages over land plants.
Although the isolation of most algae in
pure culture is often associated with many
difficulties and the discovery of the most
favorable conditions for growth entails an
enormous amount of patient research,
when these obstacles have been overcome
there can be made available an almost
limitless supply of material which is very
favorable for biochemical and physiological
investigation. Most algae under favorable
conditions show a rapid growth, so that a
"crop" can be obtained in short time.
Some of these organisms can also be sub-
jected to a wide range of experimental
conditions, such as temperature, light in-
tensity, and salinity of the culture solu-
tions, without injury. Since the organisms
are contained in liquid media, controlled

7 6

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

conditions can be maintained more easily
than with land plants.

Selection and Isolation of Algae

The task of selecting and isolating or-
ganisms which are favorable for biochem-
ical and physiological experimentation has
been assigned to Dr. Hardin. Some twenty
species have been investigated.

It is necessary, or at least highly de-
sirable, to have pure cultures of algae,
that is, single-species cultures free of all
other organisms including bacteria. Such
cultures are, of course, more difficult to
obtain than are cultures which are species-
pure only, since one always starts with a
culture in which the algae are outnum-
bered by bacteria, however conspicuous
the algae may be. Growing the culture
in an inorganic medium reduces the dis-
parity of numbers, but does not eliminate
it, for the medium is never strictly in-
organic. Even if contaminating organic
substances are not introduced with the
salts and with the distilled water used
in making the medium, some organic
matter will later appear as a result of the
growth of the algae. Whether this or-
ganic matter represents a portion of the
photosynthate directly liberated into the
medium, or whether, as is more likely, it
has its source in the autolysis of some of the
cells, does not matter in this connection.
In either case, by the time an algal popu-
lation has grown to a considerable size
the dissolved organic matter present is
enough to support an even larger popula-
tion of bacteria.

With such a mixed culture, Lister's dilu-
tion method (with which the first pure
cultures of bacteria were obtained) is
impracticable. Theoretically it could work
no matter how low the proportion of
desired organisms, but only at the expense
of an excessive amount of time and ma-
terials.

The agar streak method is likewise, in
general, not very satisfactory for the isola-
tion of algae. Although it has been pos-
sible thus to isolate a species of Chlamy-
domonas, the method generally fails on
account of the overgrowth of the algal
colonies by the spreading bacterial colo-
nies. The method can be improved in sev-
eral ways: (i) The growth of the colonies
can be followed microscopically, and a
micro-colony of algae can be transferred
to other media before bacteria have over-
grown it. By this means, a pure culture
of another unidentified species of Chlamy-
domonas has been obtained. (2) The bac-
terial predominance in the original liquid
culture can be reduced by several gentle
centrifugations of the algae. A pure cul-
ture of Selenastrum gracile has been ob-
tained in this way. (3) Substances may be
introduced into the medium which are
more toxic for bacteria than for algae. Po-
tentially this is a most useful method, but
practically it involves the problem of em-
pirically testing a world of substances, with
no assurance of success, especially since in
general bacteria are believed to be more re-
sistant to poisons than are algae. It has
been found, however, that a few fresh-
water algae are more resistant to sudden
change to a sea-water medium than are
most bacteria, so that by using agar plates
made with sea water it has been possible
to free two fresh-water algae, Stichococcus
bacillaris and Microthamnion Kuetzingi-
anum, of bacteria.

The spreading of bacteria which is so
objectionable with surface colonies can
be largely prevented by using the pour-
plate method. A small sample of the
crude culture is mixed with liquid agar
which has been cooled nearly to the gel
point, and the mixture immediately poured
into a Petri dish to cool and solidify. By
this means one obtains deep rather than
surface colonies, and such deep colonies of

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY yy

bacteria generally remain spherical or len- can be freed of bacteria merely by wash-
ticular masses of not more than a few ing. One might expect that the jelly, being
millimeters diameter with little tendency extracellular, would be infested by bacteria,
to spread; consequently any algal colonies as are the gelatinous sheaths of many blue-
present have a reasonable chance of re- green algae. Pandorina must have some
maining pure. A number of the Chloro- means of preventing the adherence or
phyceae have been purified by this method, growth of bacteria.

but it has proved less useful for diatoms, With diatoms, the washing technique

because of the diatoms' greater sensitivity has yielded few good results. Pennate dia-

to heat. The agar, in order to remain toms tend to stick to the substrate. This

liquid, must be at a temperature of more causes difficulty in removing them from

than 40 ° C. at the time of introduction of the bottom of a dish with a micropipette,

the algal sample. Even brief exposure to and still more in blowing them out of the

such temperatures is fatal to many diatoms, pipette into the next dish. Most of the

though not so to Nitzschia Palea, N. small forms attach themselves so firmly

fonticola, and N. Kuetzingiana, which to the walls of the micropipette that it

three species have been purified by this is impossible to dislodge them alive. Only

means. In the case of N. Palea the actual with one large form, Hantzschia am-

process of purification was aided by the phioxys var. elongata, has this method

activities of the diatom cells themselves, succeeded. Apparently the adhesive power

which, starting from a deep colony con- of this form is small relative to its bulk,

taminated with bacteria, migrated out- With centric diatoms the washing method

ward through the agar leaving the bac- has been completely unsuccessful. The

teria behind. This ability of some pennate marine planktonic forms which were used

diatoms to scrape themselves free of bac- showed no tendency to stick to the sub-

teria by migrating through 1.5 per cent strate, but the cells or filaments either

agar has been previously noted by Mein- could not be freed of bacteria, or, when so

hold (191 1). The spreading of surface freed, would not grow in the media used,

colonies of diatoms does not accomplish Centric diatoms, as a group, seem to be

the same end; at least, no success has more difficult to grow in any sort of

followed attempts thus to purify Nitzschia laboratory culture than are the pennate

Palea and Hantzschia amphioxys var. forms. So far, it has been possible to grow

pusilla. only two species in large enough quanti-

If a microbe can be easily seen with the ties for other studies, these species being

relatively low power of a dissecting micro- Thalassiosira gravida and Stephanopyxis

scope, and especially if it is motile, it turns. An impure culture of the latter

may often be purified by a washing proc- has been found to grow quite well, with a

ess, that is, by transferring one or several maximum fission rate of 0.5 fission per day,

cells from one dish of sterile fluid to an- in sea water enriched with nitrate, phos-

other, until all the bacteria have been left phate, and silicate, provided a small amount

behind. This method has yielded pure cul- of "soil extract" is also present. The char-

tures of Chlamydomonas sp., as well as acter of the sea water itself is evidently

of the colonial green algae Pandorina important, for samples collected at diflfer-

morum and Gonium pectorale. It is some- ent times are not equally suitable, some

what surprising that an alga such as being quite toxic. Whether the toxicity

Pandorina, surrounded by a copious jelly, is due to some sort of littoral contamina-

7 8

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

tion, or to other factors, will not be investi-
gated, for it has been found possible to
replace the natural sea water by an artifi-
cial medium based on Dittmar's old analy-
sis of sea water.

Algae of some other classes are even
more intractable than centric diatoms. The
greater part of the physiological studies
made to date have been carried out with
easily culturable members of the class
Chlorophyceae, and of these most have
been members of the single order Chloro-
coccales, to which Chlorella and Scene-
desmus belong. Consequently it is sus-
pected a priori that generalizations about
the physiology of algae rest on none too
secure a foundation. Furthermore, if dif-
ferences in storage products indicate dif-
ferences in some of the preceding metabolic
steps (a not unreasonable assumption),
an additional reason is seen for desiring
information about other classes. The Chlo-
rophyceae, with few exceptions, store sugar
or starch. The great groups of oil storers,
the Bacillariae (diatoms), Xanthophy-
ceae (yellow-green algae), Chrysophyceae
(golden-brown algae), and Dinophyceae
(dinoflagellates, etc.), besides the less
abundant Cryptophyceae and Chloro-
monophyceae, have all suffered great neg-
lect by physiologists, the reason being that
nearly all of them are difficult to culture.
Notoriously difficult to grow in the labora-
tory are the Chrysophyceae, though some
of the members of this class (e.g., Synura)
at times give rise to spectacular natural
"blooms." Since these organisms are gen-
erally rare or missing in most bodies of
water, it may be suspected that they have
very particular requirements, now quite
unknown.

Given the proper conditions, "rare" algae
often become exceedingly numerous. An
opportunity to study one of the less com-
mon algae was presented when a bloom
of the dinoflagellate Peridinium cinctum

was found in an outdoor concrete tank.
It was estimated that well over 95 per cent
of all the algal cells present were of this
single species, and the natural culture held
its own for the two months that the tank
was available. Attempts to grow the dino-
flagellates in the laboratory under a great
variety of conditions met with uniform
failure.

Algology is in great need of a tech-
nique equivalent to the "selective culture"
method of bacteriology (also called "en-
richment culture" or "elective culture"),
by means of which one can obtain what-
ever sort of bacteria is desired. If one
wishes to study an organism capable of
utilizing inulin, one makes a medium
containing inulin as the only energy source
and inoculates it with soil or some other
unknown mixture of microbes, and pres-
ently the inulin-decomposing organisms,
having a competitive advantage, outmulti-
ply all other organisms. To get a pure
culture of these organisms one uses, of
course, the same inulin-containing medium
used for the selective culture.

With the autotrophic organisms, how-
ever, the problem is more difficult; for
example, what chemical should one use to
select an oval, uniflagellate cell, having a
red eye spot, two contractile vacuoles, and
golden-brown lateral platelike chroma-
tophores? Where is the logic to connect
the morphological characteristics of the
organism with its physiological require-
ments? Attempts have nevertheless been
made to discover selective cultures for algae.
The concentrations of various inorganic
salts have been varied in a number of
ways, according to more or less intuitive
and uncertain hypotheses. In this way a
number of selective cultures for different
Chlorophyceae have been found. Selective
media have also been found for the yellow-
green alga Tribonema bombycinum and a
fresh-water centric diatom of the genus

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

Melosira. Whether other useful selective chlorophyll a and (3-carotene, have been
media can be found by this blindly em- found in all plants examined,
pirical method, or whether the search The occurrence of pigments in plants
will, in terms of time and effort, prove too belonging to different major groups is
expensive to warrant continuing, remains shown in the accompanying table. Be-
to be seen. cause of the difficulty in obtaining adequate

The occurrence of pigments in various groups of plants

(+ indicates the presence of the pigment, — its absence; ? small quantities that may have
come from contamination of the source by other organisms; a blank space signifies that a thorough
search was not made for the pigment. Carotenes other than (3-carotene and several minor pigments
of higher plants have been omitted.)

Pigment

/3-carotene

Chlorophyll a

Chlorophyll b

Chlorophyll c

Chlorophyll d

New chlorophyll

Lutein

Zeaxanthin

Violaxanthin

Neoxanthin

Flavoxanthin

Fucoxanthin

Neof ucoxanthins

Peridinin

Dinoxanthin

Diadinoxanthin

Diatoxanthin

Myxoxanthin

Myxoxanthophyll

Unnamed xanthophylls

Higher
plants

+
+
+

Green
algae

+
+

Eugleno-
phyceae

+
+

Brown
algae

+
+

+
+
+

Diatoms

+
+

Dino-
flagel-
lates

+
+

Yellow-
green
algae

Red

algae

+
+

Blue-
green
algae

Pigments of Algae

Closer examination of the pigments
from plants in various botanical families
reveals some remarkable variations in the
nature of the chloroplast pigments. These
variations are especially striking among
the pigments of algae, which have been
investigated by Drs. Strain and Man-
ning. The total number of chloroplast
pigments found in various plants now ex-
ceeds two dozen. Only two of these,

quantities of many species, our informa-
tion is far from complete. There are indi-
cations that additional work will reveal
new chlorophylls and many new xantho-
phylls in the photosynthetic tissues of
different autotrophic plants.

Higher plants and green algae. The
nature of the pigments occurring in higher
plants has been established by previous
investigations. Some attention has been
given to the pigments of three or four

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

species of green algae, especially Chlorella
pyrenoidosa. On the basis of these limited
data, the major constituents of green algae
appear to be identical with those of higher
plants. These pigments are chlorophylls
a and b, (3-carotene (plus considerable
amounts of a-carotene in Chlorella and
Stigeoclonium), lutein, zeaxanthin, and
probably violaxanthin, neoxanthin, and
flavoxanthin.

A preliminary examination of Euglena
gracilis, a. green-colored flagellated alga,
showed the presence of chlorophylls a and
b, but some of the xanthophylls differed
from those of true green algae and higher
plants.

Brown-colored algae {diatoms, brown-
algae, dinoflagellates, and allied forms).
It was emphasized in last year's report
that none of the xanthophylls found in
the diatom Nitzschia closterium were iden-
tical with those of higher plants. Five
additional species of diatoms, including
centric as well as pennate forms, have been
examined, with the same result. One of
these diatoms, Navicula torquatum, was
found to contain considerable quantities
of a hitherto undescribed pigment having
the general properties of a carotene, but
with an absorption spectrum closely re-
sembling that of violaxanthin. None of
the other algae examined contained de-
tectable quantities of this carotene-like
pigment, which we propose to call £-
carotene.

A dinoflagellate, Peridinium cinctum,
has been found to contain larger quan-
tities of chlorophyll c than any of the
diatoms and brown algae thus far exam-
ined. Peridinin, the principal xanthophyll
of Peridinium, resembles fucoxanthin,
but is redder. Fucoxanthin was not found
in Peridinium. Two other xanthophylls
were obtained in appreciable quantities;
one was identical with a xanthophyll of
diatoms (diadinoxanthin), whereas the

other has not been reported previously.
Peridinium also apparently contains none
of the xanthophylls found in higher plants.

A small unicellular, brown-colored alga
was found growing in the tissues of a
common Pacific coast sea anemone, Buno-
dactis xanthogrammica. The pigments of
this alga were found to be identical with
those of the dinoflagellate Peridinium.
Although the alga from Bunodactis lacks
some of the morphological characteristics
of dinoflagellates, the identity of pigment
make-up suggests that it is probably a
member of some closely related algal
group.

, Brown algae, like diatoms, contain chloro-
phyll c (chlorofucine) as the second green
pigment, and fucoxanthin as the principal
xanthophyll. Whether or not they con-
tain traces of the other xanthophylls found
in diatoms cannot be decided until pure
(or unialgal) cultures of brown algae are
available. In addition, brown algae con-
tain small quantities of two or three of
the xanthophylls found in leaves, along
with a new xanthophyll resembling neo-
xanthin and a similar pigment found in
flowers of the pansy.

Red algae. As reported last year, various
red algae have been found to contain a
new chlorophyll (chlorophyll d) which
absorbs light at considerably longer wave
lengths than does chlorophyll a. Some of
the properties of chlorophyll d are de-
scribed below, in the section on chemical
properties of the chlorophylls. Neither
chlorophyll b nor chlorophyll c has been
found in red algae.

The carotenoids of red algae have not
been examined, but it has been noted that
several are present in considerable quanti-
ties. The occurrence of a unique chloro-
phyll suggests that a search might also
reveal new xanthophylls.

Blue-green algae. A preliminary ex-
amination has been made of the pigments

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY gj

of a species of Phormidium. Chlorophyll will establish the degree of natural struc-
a was found, but not chlorophyll c or tural variation in this class of pigments,
chlorophyll d. The presence of chlorophyll The diversity of pigments is also inter-
im was doubtful. esting because it suggests the possibility

The two principal xanthophylls of Phor- of variation in the mechanism of photo-

midium appeared to be identical with synthesis in different groups of plants,

those previously found in blue-green algae This variation in the mechanism would

by other investigators. These two xantho- be likely to lead to different products,

phylls were not observed in the other Finally, the results shown in the table

groups of algae. Several other xanthophylls may provide an indication of the degree

were present in Phormidium, but have not of phylogenetic relationship between the

been investigated further. various classes and divisions of plants.

Yellow-green algae. In recent years, be- Support for this view is derived from the
cause of certain morphological and physio- following considerations: (i) Pigments
logical similarities, many algologists have related to the photosynthetic apparatus
considered yellow-green algae and dia- reflect some of the basic characteristics of
toms to be related. However, the pigments the genetic make-up of a plant; (2) cer-
of the one yellow-green alga we have tain plastid pigments appear to be re-
examined, Tribonema bombycinum, show stricted to given groups of plants, although
little resemblance to those of diatoms, or the relative amounts may vary in different
to those of any other group of algae. Chlo- members within a class,
rophylls b, c, and d were not detected. In It may be seen that chlorophyll a and
addition to chlorophyll a, very small 3-carotene are common to all the plant
amounts of another green pigment were classes which have been examined. This
present in the extracts of Tribonema, but is consistent with the hypothesis of a
it is not yet certain that this pigment common origin for all plants,
represents a natural constituent of the Chlorophyll b occurs only in higher
alga. At least three xanthophylls were plants, green algae, and the Euglenophy-
present, but none of the three examined ceae. Some of the xanthophylls of Euglena
appeared identical with any previously re- are not identical with those of green algae
ported xanthophyll. and higher plants. These statements are

Significance of pigment diversity. The consistent with the accepted view that

great diversity of pigments in the various higher plants have evolved indirectly from

groups of algae is interesting from several green algae, and also suggest that Euglena

points of view. The results present a is remotely related to the green algae,

challenge to the organic chemist. Much Brown algae, diatoms, and dinoflagel-

has been learned about the structure of lates may be regarded as more closely

chlorophylls a and b as a result of years related to one another than to other groups,

of intensive research. Similar information because (1) all contain chlorophyll c as

concerning chlorophylls c and d may pro- the second green pigment, (2) diatoms and

vide a better basis for generalizations re- brown algae contain fucoxanthin in com-

garding the type of molecular structure mon, (3) diatoms and dinoflagellates both

necessary in the photosynthetic process. A contain diadinoxanthin. Since the brown

similar advance in our knowledge of the algae also contain one or more xantho-

many different carotenoids found in algae phylls found in green plants, it is possible

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

that they constitute a connecting link be-
tween the green and brown plants.

The pigment composition of Tribonema
suggests that the yellow-green algae (Xan-
thophyceae) are not closely related to
diatoms, or to any of the other classes ex-
amined. This is perhaps the only instance
where the pigment evidence is in actual
disagreement with conclusions reached
from other lines of evidence.

The fact that red algae appear to be
the only class containing chlorophyll d
is a further indication that this class of
algae is remote from the other classes. A
more complete study of the pigments of
red algae, and also of blue-green algae, is
certainly to be desired.

Effect of Environment on Pigment
Content of Algae

Other investigators have reported that
various environmental factors may influ-
ence the pigment concentration, especially
the chlorophyll concentration, of various
plants. In the last annual report, there
was described a marked effect of light on
the concentration of a diatom xanthophyll
(diadinoxanthin, in Nitzschia closterium) .

Further evidence of the influence of
light, as well as of other factors, on pig-
ment concentration has been obtained from
a study of cultures of the green alga
Chlorella pyrenoidosa, grown by Dr.
Spoehr and Mr. Milner. Both the chloro-
phyll and carotene concentrations (per unit
dry weight) varied by a factor of approxi-
mately 25, the highest concentrations oc-
curring in young cultures grown at low
light intensity, and the lowest concentra-
tions being observed in older cultures
grown at high light intensity. The total
amount of carotenoid pigments relative to
chlorophyll was higher in the cultures con-
taining little chlorophyll than in those con-
taining much chlorophyll. Decrease in the
amount of yellow and green pigments in

older cultures, especially in those exposed
to strong light, does not result from a
simultaneous increase in the total amount
of organic matter present, but from an
absolute decrease in the total amount of
pigment present.

In Chlorella cells grown at low light
intensity the amount of a-carotene usually
exceeded the amount of (3-carotene, but
in cells grown at high light intensity the
reverse was true. This effect has not been
observed before, nor have other plants been
found in which the amount of a-carotene
exceeds that of (B-carotene.

The surprisingly large capacity for varia-
tion in pigment content shown by Chlo-
rella has obvious practical implications. It
indicates that more general use might be
made of controlled environments for effi-
cient production of other specific sub-
stances. Capacity for variation with change
in environment may not be confined to
pigments.

Properties of Chlorophylls

Chlorophylls a, b, and d have been
found to undergo spontaneous, reversible
isomerization reactions. The reactions take
place slowly in solutions at room tempera-
ture, rapidly at higher temperatures. Chlo-
rophyll a yields a single product, chloro-
phyll a', which is less adsorbed than chlo-
rophyll a upon columns of sugar. These
two pigments show similar absorption
spectra and yield similar but distinct pheo-
phytins. Chlorophyll b\ the isomerization
product of chlorophyll b, differs but slightly
in absorption spectrum and adsorbability
from the original chlorophyll. At equi-
librium, the new isomers constitute about
a fifth of the pigment mixtures.

Chlorophyll d yields a more complex
isomerization mixture. One isomer, chlo-
rophyll d', differs only slightly from chlo-
rophyll d in spectral properties. Another
isomer, isochlorophyll d, is formed in con-

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

siderable quantities and is similar to chloro-
phyll a in its spectral absorption properties.
A third isomer, isochlorophyll d\ differs
but slightly from isochlorophyll d.

These isomerization reactions compli-
cate investigations of the properties of the
chlorophylls. Thus far they have not been
observed to take place in living plants, but
they occur rapidly when fresh plant mate-
rial is heated.

As is the case with the common chloro-
phylls a and b, chlorophyll d and its isomers
contain magnesium. When the magne-
sium is removed from chlorophyll d with
acid at low temperature ( — 80° C), an un-
stable pheophytin, pheophytin d, is formed.
With acid at room temperature, another
more stable pheophytin is obtained. The
latter, isopheophytin d, is also obtained
from isochlorophyll d with acid at low
temperature. The less stable pheophytin
apparently has the same molecular ar-
rangement as chlorophyll d. The more
stable pheophytin has the same arrange-
ment as isochlorophyll d. The two pheo-
phytins are also interconvertible. Introduc-
tion of magnesium into the isopheophytin
d molecule results in the regenera-
tion of isochlorophyll d. In spite of the
spectral similarity of isochlorophyll d and
chlorophyll a, these two pigments yield
spectrally different products when treated
with alkali and acid.

These isomerization reactions give fur-
ther indication of possible variation in the
photosynthetic apparatus of plants. They
must also be considered in the isolation of
chlorophyll pigments and in studies of the
reactions of these substances.

The Production of Organic Matter by
Chlorella pyrenoidosa

The investigations on the characteriza-
tion of pigments can be carried out with
relatively small amounts of algal material,
thanks to the chromatographic and spectral

absorption methods which have been de-
vised during the past few years. For the
investigations on other components of these
plants, larger quantities of material were
required, especially because it was desired
to determine the influence of certain en-
vironmental factors on the production of
particular components. These investiga-
tions were carried out by H. A. Spoehr,
H. W. Milner, and Garrett Hardin. The
culturing of any microorganism in quan-
tity presents some problems which are
peculiar to each organism and some which
are common to the general method which
is adopted. Although a number of micro-
organisms, including some diatoms, were
cultured in larger amounts, special atten-
tion was given to Chlorella pyrenoidosa,
because we had had more experience with
this organism than with any of the others
and the effects of changes in environ-
mental conditions could be more rapidly
worked out with this one organism. Also,
the methods of chemical analysis which
were to be applied to these algal investiga-
tions could be more satisfactorily tested on
this material than on any other which had
thus far been cultured.

Two-liter and 15-liter cultures of Chlo-
rella were grown. The vessels, fitted with
tubes for aeration and containing the min-
eral nutrient solutions, were sterilized be-
fore inoculation. The 15-liter cultures were
grown outdoors under north skylight; the
2-liter cultures, cooled by running water,
were illuminated from below by incan-
descent lamps. Carbon dioxide, in air or in
nitrogen, was the only source of carbon.
After the cultures had grown the desired
length of time, which varied according to
experimental requirements, the organisms
were separated from the culture solutions
by centrifugation. The yields varied con-
siderably according to the culture condi-
tions used. Excluding the obviously un-
favorable conditions, the yields were about

8 4

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

2 grams per liter on a fresh-weight basis.
In some cultures the dry weight showed
great variation, ranging from n to 39
per cent.

The degree of reduction of carbon. Con-
sideration was given primarily to the or-
ganic constituents produced by the algae.
For the purposes of this investigation the
determination of the organic composition
of the plants by means of chemical esti-
mation of particular compounds, or even
of groups of compounds, was too slow and
cumbersome because of the large number
of experiments involved. Since the entire
organic content of the plant was regarded
as arising from the reduction of carbon
dioxide, the energy level of this total or-
ganic content was of more concern than the
amounts of any particular constituents. A
method was, therefore, devised for deter-
mining the "degree of reduction" of the
organic material constituting the entire
body of the plant culture. This "degree
of reduction" has been designated the R-
value, and is based on the percentage of
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen of
the dry plant material, as determined by
combustion analysis. The R-value can be
obtained by calculating the amount of
oxygen necessary to oxidize completely the
carbon and hydrogen content of the plant
material. If carbon dioxide is taken as the
lowest stage of reduction of carbon, with
an R-value of zero, and methane as the
highest stage, with an arbitrary value of
100, all organic compounds fall between
these extremes and their R-value can be
readily calculated. For example, the R-
value of malic acid is 17.94, cellulose 29.70,
alanine 33.76, leucin 50.45, triolein 72.48,
hexane 88.42. A plant takes in carbon in
its most oxidized form, carbon dioxide, and
from this as the only source of carbon
builds all the organic material constituting
its body. A determination of the R-value
will, therefore, be an over-all measure of

how far it has carried the reduction of
carbon dioxide.

The body of a plant is, of course, com-
posed of a great many different carbon
compounds. Is it of fixed composition ? Do
different components of the plant vary in
amount, and to what extent can these
different components be altered by changes
in the environmental conditions to which
the plant is exposed? Changes in compo-
sition would be reflected in different R-
values. Higher R-values indicate relatively
greater amounts of highly reduced com-
pounds such as fats and hydrocarbons;
lower R-values indicate relatively larger
amounts of less reduced compounds such as
carbohydrates and hydroxy acids.

A survey of the leaves of a number of
higher plants of widely different genera
showed that their R-values are within a
relatively narrow range, from about 30 to
40. Some of these leaves show very marked
quantitative variation in some of their com-
ponents, before and after a period of
illumination. Notable starch synthesizers,
such as Nicotiana tabacum and Tro-
paeolum majus, the leaves of which in-
crease 10- to 20-fold in starch content after
a period of illumination and in which the
starch constitutes finally 20 to 44 per cent
of the dry matter, showed but a small
decrease in R-value after a period of
illumination.

The lower plants, for example Chlorella,
appear in some respects to be. more flexible
than the higher plants. This alga can
grow under a wide variety of environ-
mental conditions, and thereby undergoes
considerable change in composition. That
this change not only is quantitative but
results in products of different chemical
composition is indicated by the fact that
its R-values range from 38 to 58 according
to environmental conditions.

An extensive series of culture experi-
ments was carried out with Chlorella in

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

order to determine the effect of different
environmental factors on the production of
organic matter by this organism. More
particularly, an effort was made to discover
the conditions which were favorable to the
production of compounds of high R-value,
presumably fats and hydrocarbons.

Environment and chemical composition.
In an investigation entailing so complex a
system as is involved in the culture of
Chlorella, it is manifestly impossible, with-
out the expenditure of an inordinate
amount of time, to give full consideration
to each member of the constellation of
environmental factors. Consequently, cer-
tain of the components of each group of
environmental factors, which from past ex-
perience appear to be most significant, were
selected. Thus, of the mineral nutrients,
primarily nitrogen and to some extent
phosphate and potassium were given con-
sideration. Of the gases, primarily the
effects of carbon dioxide concentration
were studied, and to some degree the
partial pressure of oxygen. Of the light
factor, primarily intensity, the effect of
intermittency, and the duration of illumi-
nation received attention. Studies of the
effect of temperature have only recently
been started. Obviously none of these fac-
tors can be considered entirely independ-
ently of the others. Moreover, the choice
of the factors investigated was in part
influenced by the theories regarding the
nature and intensity of these factors dur-
ing past geological eras, so far as it has
been possible to envisage them. That is,
on the assumption that petroleum de-
posits have arisen from the activity of cer-
tain marine organisms, consideration was
given to the conditions which are pre-
sumed to have prevailed at the time these
organisms lived. Thus far, over one hun-
dred and fifty 2-liter cultures, grown under
a considerable range of conditions, have
been harvested and the product analyzed.

Some of the more promising of these have
in turn been grown in larger culture for
more particular analysis.

The concentration of carbon dioxide
has a considerable effect on the compo-
sition of the organic material produced
by Chlorella. Not only was the yield
greater, as was to be expected, with ad-
dition of carbon dioxide to air, but such
cultures also showed a higher R-value.
The highest yields and also the highest
R-values were obtained with 5 per cent
carbon dioxide with high light intensities.
Ten per cent carbon dioxide gave lower
yields and lower R-values, even with high
light intensities. Under most conditions
it appears to make little difference in yield
or in R-value whether the carbon dioxide is
mixed with air or whether it is contained
in nitrogen or hydrogen, that is, whether
it is an aerobic or anaerobic culture.
With higher light intensities and longer
periods of illumination, however, 5 per
cent of carbon dioxide in nitrogen pro-
duced higher yields and higher R-values
than 5 per cent carbon dioxide in air. No
satisfactory explanation has as yet been
found for this complex interaction of sev-
eral factors, which will require consider-
ably more detailed study. With the more
extreme condition of mixtures of carbon
dioxide and oxygen, in the absence of any
other gas, very pronounced effects are ob-
servable: the cultures grow exceedingly
slowly and produce small yields with a
very low R-value.

Of the three mineral nutrients studied,
nitrogen, potassium, and phosphate, the
first two appear to exert a pronounced
effect. Since the interpretation in terms of
plant metabolism of effects obtained by
variations of any one required mineral ele-
ment may be exceedingly complex and
such effects may be obscured in various
ways, this summary is confined to the ob-
served gross effects on yields and R-values

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

produced by different concentrations of
these mineral elements in the solutions in
which the Chlorella cells were cultured.
Nitrogen, as ammonium ion, has a pro-
found effect on both yield and R-value.
The highest R-value, 56.8-58.4, was ob-
tained from cultures from which nitrogen
compounds were omitted, although the
yields were low. Addition of even very
small quantities of nitrogen materially in-
creased the yields and resulted in lower
R-values. With 0.12 g. NH 4 C1 per liter,
maximum yields were obtained, with R-
values of about 53. Further increasing the
amount of nitrogen does not increase the
yield and reduces the R-value. A certain
amount of phosphate is, of course, essen-
tial, but variations in this nutrient have not
been found to produce pronounced effects.
On the other hand, the effects of potassium
are very pronounced. Increased amounts
result in decided augmentation of both
yields and R-values. Some of the highest
yields combined with the highest R-values
have been obtained with cultures high in
potassium. These experiments have not yet
been concluded, so that it is impossible to
say how high the R-values can be carried
by further increases in potassium content.

Originally it was planned to carry out
measurements of the rate of photosynthesis
and determinations of the ratios of carbon
dioxide absorbed and oxygen evolved in
conjunction with these investigations. Un-
fortunately, because of the war, it has not
been possible to carry out this part of the
program. As a consequence, it is impos-
sible to give a rational interpretation of
the results obtained with variations in the
light factor in these culture experiments.
The results are, however, in themselves of
considerable interest. With 5 per cent car-
bon dioxide in air or in nitrogen, both
yields and R-values increase in cultures
raised with higher light intensities. Above
about 680 foot-candles, increase in light

intensity results in no further increase in
either yields or R-values. The latter in-
crease with the length of time of illumina-
tion. Approximately, yields and R-values
are a product of intensity and length of
illumination, that is, of lumen hours. Com-
paring the same periods of illumination in
intermittent and in continuous light, the
yields and R-values are slightly higher in
continuous light. There was no significant
difference in the R-values between cultures
which were harvested after a period of
illumination and those which had been
kept in the dark for periods of 12 to 48
hours before harvesting. Nor do the cul-
tures, after attaining full growth, appear
to change appreciably in composition,
when kept free from bacterial contamina-
tion, during a period of 16 days in the dark.
The fact is again stressed that variations
in any single nutrient element may result
in complex reactions, including changes
in the pH of the medium, so that their
interpretation on metabolic principles can
be accomplished only on the basis of more
extensive analysis. It has, however, already
been possible to discover culture conditions
which result in products of very mate-
rially different composition from those en-
countered growing under natural condi-
tions, and to alter the gross composition
of the organisms at will to a considerable
extent and in a satisfactorily reproducible
manner.

Vitamins in Algae

Because certain algae can be grown so
rapidly and for their culture require only
air, light, and simple mineral nutrients, it
seemed possible that, under emergency
conditions, these organisms might provide
a single natural source of a number of
vitamins. A series of vitamin determina-
tions, by chemical means, was carried out
principally on fresh Chlorella and on some
preserved in different ways. An effort was

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

«7

also made to ascertain to what extent the vitamin C content. Drying the cells in

vitamin content of this alga was influenced vacuum resulted in a loss of 30 to 50 per

by the different environmental conditions cent of the ascorbic acid. Nor was it pos-

under which it was cultured. The caro- sible to reduce this loss by removing the

tene (provitamin A) was determined by oxygen from the cells before drying in

Drs. Strain and Manning; vitamin C was vacuum, or by blanching before drying,

determined by Dr. Smith; and Dr. Man- Even greater losses of vitamin C, amount-

ning made some determinations of ribo- ing to about 80 per cent, were caused by

flavin, but the latter work was interrupted sterilization of the algal material after it

by his being called to other duties con- had been sealed in evacuated tubes,
nected with the war.

The carotene content of several species The Photosynthate in Sunflower

of algae was found to vary greatly. Two Leaves

species of brown algae yielded 0.016 to l n order that clear interpretation of

0.033 m g- carotene per gram of fresh algal tne mechanism of photosynthesis may be

material; four species of diatoms, 0.014 to achieved, there is great need for more

0.050 mg.; a dinoflagellate, Peridinium precise information concerning the specific

cinctum, 0.107 mg. These values are some- substances which are synthesized. Dr.

what smaller than those reported for caro- Smith has continued his investigations on

tene obtained from leaves of higher plants. t he nature of the substances produced

The amount of carotene contained in directly by photosynthesis in sunflower

Chlorella pyrenoidosa varied greatly with leaves.

the conditions under which the cells were The criterion used to judge whether a

grown. Cells grown in continuous illumi- particular substance arises from photosyn-

nation of relatively high intensity contained thesis is whether or not that substance

as little as 0.01 mg. of carotene per gram increases in amount during short periods

of fresh cells, whereas those grown in of illumination and carbon dioxide absorp-

low light intensities contained 0.122 to tion. This criterion becomes more sound

0.29 mg. the more completely the carbon absorbed

The vitamin C determinations were as carbon dioxide during photosynthesis

made by the 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol can be accounted for by an equivalent

method. The amount of this vitamin in increase in specific organic substances.

Chlorella was found to vary from about It had long been known that the most

0.3 to 0.6 mg. per gram of fresh cells, noticeable increases in organic matter dur-

These values are about the same as those ing photosynthesis occurred in the carbo-

which have been 'found for a number of hydrate content. How nearly all of the

marine algae. About the same percentage absorbed carbon could be accounted for

of vitamin C is contained in fresh Chlorella as carbohydrate was still uncertain,

as in lemon juice, one of the well recog- The initial report on this research was

nized sources of this vitamin. made last year. It showed that a very

Although the losses in carotene (and large proportion of the carbon dioxide

presumably in riboflavin) when the algal photosynthetically absorbed by sunflower

material was preserved by various methods leaves could be accounted for by the

were relatively small, it has not been pos- amount of carbohydrate synthesized. The

sible to devise a satisfactory means of con- proportion was so large as to indicate that

venient storage without material losses in under the proper experimental conditions

88 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

the carbohydrate accumulated would equal photosynthesized) was 96.7 ±2.7 per cent

the carbon dioxide taken in. Experiments of the carbon absorbed,
carried out during the past year have The proportion of the assimilated carbon

demonstrated that the agreement is almost recovered in the sucrose fraction progres-

quantitative, 98.7 per cent of the carbon sively decreases as the amount of assimi-

absorbed being recovered as carbohydrate, lated carbon dioxide increases. Conversely,

To achieve this high degree of correspond- the proportion found in the monosaccha-

ence, the experiments were carried out ride fraction progressively increases. In

at io° C. instead of at 20 °, the tempera- fact, the sums of the percentages recovered

ture at which the earlier experiments were in these two fractions are almost constant,

conducted. 61 .1 ±1.0 per cent. Likewise, the per-

From the observations made thus far centages recovered in the starch fraction
it may be concluded that the specific sub- remain nearly constant, 29.6 ± 1 .6 per cent,
stances accumulated as a result of photo- These facts suggest that starch and sucrose
synthesis by sunflower leaves are carbo- are formed simultaneously in sidc-by-side
hydrates. Although the experimental data reactions and that sucrose is further trans-
indicate that under certain conditions all formed into monosaccharide. The latter
the carbon assimilated can be accounted for supposition may be erroneous, for it is
as increase in carbohydrate, the experi- possible that the monosaccharide present
mental error of recovery is great enough to in the leaf may be converted into sucrose
allow for small increases in the amounts by illumination of the leaf. Such a trans-
of other substances. To establish whether formation would account for the trends
or not these occur will require exceedingly noted in the sucrose and monosaccharide
sensitive tests. fractions.

After it had been demonstrated that Starch, sucrose, and glucose have each

carbohydrates comprise the specific sub- been proposed as being the primary carbo-

stances accumulated during photosyn- hydrate formed in photosynthesis. The

thesis, determinations were made of the results reported here do not give an une-

amounts of the different carbohydrates quivocal answer to this question, but they

formed by the assimilation of various suggest that perhaps more than one of the

amounts of carbon dioxide. As the amount carbohydrates may arise simultaneously,
of carbon dioxide assimilated increases. The residue fraction (that portion of the

the percentage of the carbon dioxide re- leaf remaining after extraction with 80

covered as carbohydrate apparently passes per cent ethanol and with hot water, and

through a maximum. In view of the prob- hydrolysis with dilute acid) is increased by

able deviations in the results, however, it treatment of the leaf with carbon dioxide

is possible that the percentage recovery in the dark. On illumination of the leaf,

may remain constant over the range in- this fraction decreases progressively as the

vestigated. Until one of these alternative amount of carbon assimilated through

possibilities has been established no valid photosynthesis increases. This decrease in

deductions can be drawn from these data, the residue is reflected in a steady decline

because these alternative trends lead to in the percentages of total carbon recov-

quite contradictory conclusions. The maxi- ered. Because of lack of sufficient data, no

mum amount of carbon recovered under well founded interpretation of the behavior

these conditions (temperature 20 ° C. and of this fraction during photosynthesis can

progressively increasing amounts of carbon be attempted at the present time.

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

8 9

The increases in the other carbohydrate to Mr. R. W. Williams, of the Chemistry

fractions constituted only small portions of Department, for making the activity meas-

the total gains in carbohydrate, and no sig- urements.
nificant trends in the amounts of increase

were apparent. Improved Methods of Pigment Analysis

A rigorous treatment of the kinetics of The impact of war with its insistent
carbohydrate formation and transformation demands for new methods of production,
should include a consideration of the total preservation, storage, and shipment of
concentrations of the various carbohydrates plant material to be used as food for man
contained in the leaf. So far the attempts and animals has prompted us to report
made to discover a relation between the several improved analytical techniques that
amount of any one of the carbohydrates were developed in the course of our in-
synthesized during photosynthesis and the vestigations of the pigments of plants,
amounts of others present in the leaf at These methodological advances have facili-
the beginning of the photosynthesis period tated analysis of the complex mixtures of
have failed. It is possible that the photo- the organic substances found in plant mate-
synthetic reaction is so localized in the leaf rial. They show promise of application in
that the increase in any carbohydrate dur- other fields of chemical and biochemical
ing short periods of photosynthesis is not investigation.

appreciably related to the total amount of Estimation of carotene (provitamin A),

any carbohydrate in the leaf, but is related now widely used as a test of the quality

only to a part confined within some spe- f many preserved plant products, may

cialized unit. be accomplished quickly and conveniently

Changes in conditions of photosynthesis, by a procedure developed by Dr. Strain, for
for example lowering the temperature and the analysis of algal pigments. The pig-
increasing the amount of photosynthesis, ments are extracted from fresh or freshly
have been found to change the proportions blanched plant material with acetone,
of the different carbohydrates formed. It methanol, or ethanol. If the material is a
may be that greater variations in experi- dried product, it is first hydrated with a
mental conditions might even alter the little distilled water, and the pigments are
basic nature of the products. then removed with the organic solvents.

It was hoped that alternative mecha- The solution of the extracted pigments is

nisms of carbon dioxide utilization, already drawn through a filter of heat-treated

pointed out, could be examined by use of siliceous earth (Filter Aid 501) into a

long-life radioactive carbon, C 14 , prepared spherical flask with a long neck, from

by means of the Stanford University cyclo- which all the solvent is evaporated at re-

tron. Though experiments showed that duced pressure and at a temperature not

irradiation of ammonium nitrate by neu- above 40 C. The residual pigments are

trons from this instrument formed C 14 , then dissolved in a little petroleum ether,

the amount obtained was insufficient for which is also evaporated at reduced pres-

the tracer experiments planned. Observa- sure. The residual pigments are again

tions on the activity of one sample showed dissolved in petroleum ether, and the solu-

no change in activity over a period of tion is again drawn through an adsorp-

seven months. We are indebted to Pro- tion column of the same adsorbent. Under

fessor Felix Bloch, of the Physics Depart- these conditions, the carotene, which is

ment, for the use of the cyclotron, and weakly adsorbed, is carried rapidly through

90 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

the column. Continued washing of the conditions through use of a finely dis-

column with fresh petroleum ether car- persed liquid as the adsorption agent. For

ries all the carotene into the percolate, example, it was observed that some of the

where the amount of this pigment is esti- algal pigments when dissolved in pe-

mated by colorimetric or spectrophoto- troleum ether were strongly adsorbed on

metric methods. the surface of the droplets of water. When

Complete resolution of the complex the small droplets of water were permitted
mixtures of pigments found in various to fall through the petroleum ether solu-
green plants has been effected only through tion of the plant pigments contained in a
use of the sensitive and specific chromato- long, narrow tube, certain pigments were
graphic adsorption columns. Additional removed from the solution by the droplets
observations concerning the effect of var- and carried to the bottom of the tube,
ious conditions on the separation of leaf There they were deposited as a distinct
pigments in the columns have now led phase at the water surface by the coalescing
to conclusions that may be of great benefit droplets. In this way the strongly adsorbed
to those using this method in other fields, pigments were removed from the weakly
and on an industrial scale. For example, adsorbed ones. With extracts of leaves,
the relative positions of pigments adsorbed strongly adsorbed xanthophylls were re-
in the columns depend on the nature of moved from the weakly adsorbed chloro-
the adsorbent and the solvent. Changes phylls and carotenes. With extracts of
in either the solvent or the adsorbent may diatoms, brown algae, and dinoflagellates,
reverse the relative adsorbabilities of the the strongly adsorbed xanthophylls and
pigments. This changes the relative rates chlorophyll c were removed from the
at which the pigments move through the chlorophyll a and carotene,
adsorption column and may change their This procedure shows promise of being
relative positions. It follows that if, with a applicable to the separation and purifica-
given adsorbent, one solvent causes a pair tion of some important technical products,
of substances to be adsorbed in one se- Stearic acid is rapidly removed from fats
quence, and another solvent causes them (olive oil) dissolved in petroleum ether
to be adsorbed in the inverse order, there when droplets of water buffered with
should be at least one mixture of the two phosphate to pH 8 are allowed to fall
solvents that will not effect a separation through the solution. By minor modifica-
of the two adsorbed compounds. This tions of the apparatus, this procedure could
emphasizes the fact that determination of be made continuous in its operation,
the homogeneity of chemical substances

and comparison of materials suspected of New Sources of Cis-Lycopene
being identical will be most effective when Correlation of the properties of the caro-
various solvents are used with different tenoid pigments and postulations regard-
adsorbents, ing their possible reactions and functions

Utilization of the chromatographic ad- [ n tne plant depend, to a considerable ex-
sorption method for the preparation of tent, upon knowledge of the various kinds
substances on a large scale involves the r types of these pigments. Some members
consumption of enormous quantities of of this group occur in very small quanti-
adsorbent relative to the amount of mate- ties in a few sources; hence, they are dim-
rials separated in the columns. This dis- cult to obtain in quantity sufficient for
advantage may be overcome under certain chemical and physical examination. Dis-

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY 9I

covery of rich sources of these pigments culty, have now been found by Dr. Strain,

provides substantial aid to investigators in These sources are the red fruits or berries

this complicated field of research. Con- of Arum orientale and of Dracunculus

venient and abundant sources of the very vulgaris (Arum Dracunculus), lilies be-

labile isomer of lycopene, the so-called longing to the Araceae, the jack-in-the-

aV-lycopene, hitherto obtainable with diffi- pulpit family.

EXPERIMENTAL TAXONOMY

Jens Clausen, David D. Keck, and William M. Hiesey

The experiments on plant relationships Amphiploidy has been a highly im-

have shown that many small and gradual portant mechanism in plants, because many

steps are involved in the differentiation groups have followed this method of spe-

of the natural units, from the local popu- ciation, pyramiding their chromosome

lation to the genus. The higher of these numbers in progressively higher series to

biosystematic units are separated from one form new species. The mechanism of

another by more distinct genetic barriers amphiploidy has various patterns, and the

than the lower. One finds natural units success of new species that arise by it

on different levels of separation, but cer- hinges on many circumstances,

tain levels represent significant evolution- With the three thoroughly analyzed

ary starting points. One of the more im- cases of amphiploidy in the Madiinae as

portant of these levels is reached when a a background, an analysis has been made

group of plants has become so mature of many well documented cases reported

that the entire set of chromosomes, rather in the literature. The objectives have been

than the individual gene, becomes the to determine the principles that govern

evolutionary building unit. the production of amphiploids, and the

At this evolutionary level distinct ceno- criteria for their success when they appear

species have differentiated. When higher in nature. The results of this investigation,

plants have reached this stage, new species together with an outline of the biosystem-

may rise abruptly through the addition atic principles, have been incorporated in

of entire sets of chromosomes of old spe- a monograph, the manuscript for which

cies. This process is known as amphiploidy is now ready for publication,

(amphidiploidy). The origination of three This investigation has answered ques-

new amphiploid Madiinae in this labora- tions regarding the evolutionary pattern

tory prompted an inquiry into the require- common to many genera of plants, and is

ments for successful amphiploidy. Prin- of further significance because the con-

ciples of general importance were revealed trolled production of amphiploids is cer-

that elucidate the relationships between tain to become of increasing economic im-

natural units on the highest level that portance. The usefulness of amphiploids

can be studied experimentally— that of dis- lies in the fact that they combine the

tinct but related cenospecies. heredities of other species and represent

This rounds out a formulation of the new, often superior combinations. Their

principles governing the degrees of bio- genetic qualities are changed, and so are

systematic relationship, the lower levels of their physiological qualities,

which were discussed in the last three Year In order to understand the sudden ap-

Books. pearance of amphiploids, one must bear

9 2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

in mind the organization of plants into Consequently, the comparium becomes the
natural units of different degrees of com- largest natural unit which is subject to
plexity. The existence of these units, in experimental analysis,
graded series from simple to complex, has The ecotype is frequently the counter-
been amply demonstrated by an abundance part of the geographic subspecies, and the
of experimental data. ecospecies approaches the species of the

moderately conservative taxonomist. The
The Biosystematic Units cenospecies approximates the level of the
The first important natural unit above section in most genera, but in some cases
the level of the local population is the it may equal the entire genus. In complex
ecotype. It is that component of the species groups the comparium frequently corre-
which is genetically and physiologically sponds to the genus, but there are also
adapted to one of the major environments examples of several adjacent genera corn-
occupied by the species as a whole. A posing one comparium, as, for instance,
widespread species may have a number of the wheat allies in the genera Triticum,
such ecotypes, kept distinct by the selective Aegilops, Agropyron, Haynaldia, Secale,
action of the environment, but genetically an d Elymus.

capable of free interbreeding where they

t Evolutionary Sequences

The biosystematic unit on the next level The four kinds of biosystematic unit

of complexity above the ecotype is the just described represent important evolu-

ecospecies. Each ecospecies has evolved a tionary nodes, but they are connected by

separate genetic system that is balanced many intermediate steps. The ecotype is at

both internally and externally. The in- the evolutionary level where fitness to more

tricacy of these balances is such that genes than one major environment evolves. The

of related systems cannot be freely inter- ecospecies is at that level at which separate

changed without seriously impairing the units arise through constitutional barriers

ensuing development of the offspring. In to successful interbreeding. Beyond the

other words, genetic barriers are always level of the cenospecies gene exchange is

interposed between ecospecies. These bar- no longer possible, although an addition

riers are carried along by the species wher- of all the chromosomes of two cenospecies

ever it migrates, insuring it a greater of one comparium is still possible through

permanency than that of the ecotype. amphiploidy. The comparium marks the

Species entirely unable to exchange genes limit for even this event in evolution, for

through hybridization belong to different distinct comparia have to depend on their

cenospecies. Their genetic balances have own gene resources.

become so unlike that even a very limited Evolution may be said to be reticulate

exchange between their chromosome sets in pattern from the level of the ecotype

is lethal. A cenospecies may consist of to that of the comparium, but beyond that

from one to many ecospecies capable of level it becomes exclusively forked in type,

limited gene exchange. The comparium therefore represents a very

Some distinct cenospecies are still enough important node in the evolutionary process,
related to be able to form sterile hybrids. The study of hundreds of different
Such cenospecies belong to one co mparium. hybrids between units of many degees of
If they are unable to produce even sterile relationship suggests that one kind of bio-
hybrids, they belong to different comparia. systematic unit may evolve from another

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

in successive order. The machinery for comparium, as represented by the nearly

this development is provided by the proc- extinct maidenhair tree, Ginkgo biloba,

esses of mutation, recombination, and se- which at present probably consists of only

lection; and the materials come from the one ecotype. The fossil record discloses a

supply of genes within the individual, or circumboreal distribution for Ginkgo in

the natural unit. As the mutation process earlier times, making it virtually certain

supplies new raw materials, or genes, the that many ecotypes, and probably also

recombining processes repattern them, and ecospecies, existed to enable it to inhabit

the selective processes eliminate the unfit these different climates,

from the resultant new products. Somewhere between these extremes are

Below the level of the ecospecies the most the comparia that are most complex in
important evolutionary unit is the gene, structure, namely, those that contain sev-
but above the level of the cenospecies it eral cenospecies well differentiated into
becomes the genome. The genome is the ecospecies and ecotypes. Such a corn-
sum of all the genes in the sex cells of a parium is probably in its most active and
species, and is represented by the haploid expansive stage of development, for gene
set of chromosomes. When amphiploidy interchanges can repattern the ecotypes,
occurs, the retention of unbroken parental and, to a certain extent, the ecospecies also,
genomes is necessary for success. Between These changes can be incorporated in
the ecospecies and the cenospecies levels, amphiploids that arise between members
the genome evolves by the increasing inter- of its cenospecies. Many of our most
dependence of chromosomes operating in important crop plants are members of such
blocks, rather than as individual genes comparia; for example, wheat, cotton,
or chromosomes. tobacco, cabbage, etc. And the most com-

Because the comparium is the sum of plex groups of wild plants that show both
all its subordinate units, many different aggressive distribution and much inter-
kinds of comparium exist. The columbine gradation are also largely comparia of this
genus, Aquilegia, is among the simplest kind, as exemplified by the Artemisia
and most flexible comparia. It has very vulgaris complex of North America. The
few and but slightly separated ecospecies, genus Layia, reviewed in Year Book No.
but each contains many ecotypes. The 40, pp. 162—168, approaches this condition,
majority of its described species are actually although it has developed only one wild
but ecotypes or groups of ecotypes, and amphiploid species.
all the biological units have remained

diploid. Comparia of this kind are very SuccESS OR Failure of Amphiploids
adaptable to changing conditions, for they

have virtually no barriers to gene inter- The success or failure of amphiploids
change, and are able to inhabit areas with and other species is determined by the
widely contrasting climates. The section same factors. All the genes of the amphi-
Drymocallis of Potentilla, with P. glan- ploid must work together in such a way
dulosa and its allies, is another example as to insure a harmonious development,
of a climatically very adaptable comparium and the hereditary mechanism must be
consisting primarily of ecotypes that have able to transmit the balanced gene corn-
remained diploid. bination to the descendants. This con-

At the opposite extreme of the evolu- elusion was reached through studies on

tionary succession one finds the monotypic amphiploids that had arisen in the Ma-

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

diinae, and was confirmed by other amphi- amphiploid is successful in inverse pro

ploids on record. portion to the degree of homology that

The three amphiploids synthesized in exists between the chromosomes of its
the Madiinae were Madia nutrammii, n— parents. This assumption proves to be
17 (from M. nutans (Greene) Keck, n= only partly true, for other determining
9, X M. Rammii Greene, 72 = 8); Madia factors are of greater importance. For
citrigracilis Keck, 72 = 24 (from M. gracilis instance, the doubling of the chromosomes
(Sm.) Keck, 72 = 16, X M. citriodora in intraspecific hybrids has no deleterious
Greene, 72 = 8); and Layia pentaglossa, effect even though they are homologous,
72 = 15 (f rom L. pentachaeta Gray, 72 = 8, for the parent genomes are so alike that
X L. platyglossa (F. et M.) Gray, 72 = 7) . their genes are freely interchangeable. The
The synthesis of Madia citrigracilis was resulting autoploid is therefore ordinarily
attempted in order to duplicate a native successful. On the other hand, doubling
species suspected of having arisen through the non-homologous sets of a hybrid be-
amphiploidy and of having this parentage, tween remotely related species does not
The synthesized and the natural products guarantee a successful amphiploid, for
are very similar. The production of these during the irregular formation of sex cells
three amphiploids was reported in Year in such hybrids fatal chromosome ex-
Books Nos. 39 and 40. changes may take place. If the parents

All three amphiploids arose from sterile are very different, even slight interchanges

Fi hybrids without chemical or physical may be lethal.

treatment, and therefore are indicative of The two conditions necessary for the
what can happen in the wild. In all three production of a successful amphiploid are :
Fi hybrids the parental chromosomes were first, that the genomes of its parents inter-
essentially unpaired, and often failed to act to insure a harmonious and vigorous
disjoin during meiosis, thereby producing development of the Fi hybrid; and, second,
diploid gametes that contained all the that the successful initial balance be pre-
chromosomes from both parents. This served through succeeding generations,
provided a mechanism for amphiploidy. This is most likely to materialize if the

The two Madia hybrids produced sue- parents have nonhomologous chromo-
cessful amphiploids, which resembled the somes, precluding intergenomal pairing.
Fi and remained constant in later genera- In other words, the parents should be
tions. The Layia amphiploid, however, closely enough related to be able to pro-
showed interspecific segregation in spite duce a vigorous Fi hybrid, but remotely
of the fact that the parental chromosomes enough so that the balance between their
were not homologous, and it finally be- combined genomes can be perpetuated,
came so sterile that it could not be con- In terms of biosystematic units, an am-
tinued further. The morphological con- phiploid is therefore most likely to succeed
stancy of the two Madia amphiploids if its parents belong to distinct cenospecies
indicates that no interchange of genes took of the same comparium. The conditions
place between their parental genomes. On under which amphiploidy can take place
the other hand, the distinct interspecific are limited by this requirement, but de-
recombinations in the second and third termined by the maturity of the corn-
generations of the Layia indicated that parium. The columbines, for example,
such interchanges had occurred here. are too immature in their evolutionary

It has been widely assumed that an development for successful amphiploidy,

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

whereas Ginkgo probably passed the stage the chromosomes of different species, and

millions of years ago, for all its close the parents may have either the same or

relatives are extinct. different chromosome numbers. If the

In reviewing the literature on amphi- basic chromosome sets of the parents

ploidy, one finds examples of both stable have the same number, amphiploids fol-

and unstable combinations, and in the lowing an arithmetical progression may

more thoroughly documented cases, causes result from their addition in various com-

for these differences can be traced to the binations (for example, 72 = 8, 16, 24, 32).

factors mentioned. As would be expected, If the basic chromosome sets differ in

the more unstable types occur only as number but are not polyploid, the amphi -

garden products (for they would be rapidly ploids will be dysploid like the parents,

eliminated in the wild), but the stable This is exemplified by the cabbage com-

amphiploids arise either in the garden or parium (Brassica, Raphanus, and Sinapis),

in nature or, occasionally, in both. where the species on the diploid level have

Amphiploids versus autoploids. A classi- 8, 9, or 10 pairs of chromosomes, their

fication of the best-known instances of natural amphiploids on the tetraploid level

added genomes was attempted on bio- have 17, 18, or 19 pairs, and two newly

systematic principles. It was soon apparent reported amphiploids represent the rudi-

that the stable combinations could be mentary hexaploid level, with 27 and

placed in two successful classes depending 29 pairs.

on the degree of relationship between their Autoploids arise either from a non-
parents: (1) those that arose from hybrids hybrid individual or by doubling of the
between distinct or nearly distinct ceno- chromosomes in an intraspecific hybrid,
species, or amphiploids in the strict sense, Since such parents have the same chromo-
and (2) those that arose within one eco- some number, the autoploids are also poly-
species, or autoploids in the wide sense, ploids, but their chromosomes usually fol-
Between these extremes occur amphiploids low a geometric progression (for example,
between parents of intermediate relation- « = 8, 16, 32, 64).

ship, that is, between distinct ecospecies The biologist dealing with natural

of one cenospecies. Most of these represent groups of plants may find cases of both

unstable combinations, for their parental autoploidy and amphiploidy in the same

genomes are not sufficiently alike to be genus or comparium, one often superim-

freely interchangeable, but are too homol- posed upon the other. Such combinations

ogous to prevent interchange after doub- are found in complex genera like Galium,

ling. The nuclear processes that tend to Tradescantia, and Zauschneria. Much of

perpetuate a given combination and those the taxonomic complexity that seemed so

that tend to break it up are, however, hopeless in these groups becomes much

so delicately balanced that in marginal clarified when they are analyzed in terms

cases gametic elimination of occasional of the genomes of their basic diploid

unfit combinations may compensate for species combined by amphiploidy and

too close a chromosome homology. There- autoploidy.

fore, when the parents belong to distinct Ecologic relations. Amphiploids fre-

ecospecies of one cenospecies, the success quently combine the genomes of species

or failure of their amphiploids cannot be native in different climates. As a conse-

safely predicted. quence they are able to invade habitats

Amphiploids arise by the addition of from which their parents are excluded by

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

natural selection, and they are often more
adaptable than either parent. Thus, amphi-
ploidy extends the range which the forms
of a comparium may occupy. The culti-
vated timothy, Phleum pratense L., for
example, is an amphiploid that combines
the genomes of P. alpinum L., an alpine
and arctic species of moist situations, and
P. nodosum L., of dry, lowland situations.
It grows spontaneously in fairly moist
lowlands, but is more adaptable than
either parent and competes successfully
with both.

Ecologically and taxonomically the am-
phiploid reacts as an interspecific Fi hybrid
that has become constant. The observa-
tions on the general adaptability of amphi-
ploids are therefore confirmed by those
on Fi hybrids between lowland and alpine
ecotypes of Potentilla glandulosa Lindl.
In the transplant experiments these have
a wider range of tolerance for different
environments than do their parents. This
principle may be of importance in the
breeding of economic plants to fit different
climates.

Each chromosome level above the diploid
makes new genome additions possible, so
that in many genera almost all the diploid
species may be interlinked genetically via
the superstructure of amphiploids and
autoploids in the higher levels. The char-
acter of the superstructure is determined
by the diploid species, whose genomes are
the building units that give the whole its
essential attributes. The various units of
such a complex usually are found to occupy
different ecological niches.

The Madia gracilis complex. During
the study of experimental material for
the publication on amphiploidy, it was
discovered that what had been taken for a
single species, Madia gracilis, is in fact a
polyploid complex. Fifty-eight populations
from localities in the three Pacific coast

states were investigated and the following
facts uncovered.

A rare diploid species with 8 pairs of
chromosomes occupies a few scattered
localities in the dry foothills of the Sierra
Nevada. This form is morphologically
distinguishable from the others and has
been given the name M. subspicata. This
nearly extinct form is probably a relict of a
once more common species and may be an
important link in the evolution of this
complex.

The great bulk of the material occurring
below 4500 feet altitude is tetraploid {n —
16) and is typical Madia gracilis. It is very
unlikely that this is an autoploid deriva-
tive of subspicata, for in hybrids with
other species its 16 chromosomes do not
pair inter se, but remain single. Tetra-
ploid M. gracilis is more probably a very
old amphiploid, of which no more than
one possible ancestor is known.

Above 4500 feet elevation a hexaploid
form replaces tetraploid gracilis. It appears
to have a wide distribution at higher alti-
tudes, but is morphologically indistinguish-
able from the tetraploid, although it differs
perceptibly in ecologic reactions. The fact
that its chromosome number is 24, and
not 32, points to the conclusion that it
arose as an amphiploid between tetraploid
gracilis and probably subspicata, rather
than as an autoploid.

In northeastern California a fourth
member of this polyploid complex, the
narrowly endemic, 24-chromosome M.
citri gracilis, forms an island between the
two forms of gracilis. The suspected
origin of this form has been verified by
its synthesis as an amphiploid between
tetraploid gracilis and the 8-chromosome
M. citriodora, a native of the region. This
connection brings the latter species into the
complex as its fifth member. The rela-
tions observed in this group, which is
but a part of the cenospecies M. sativa,

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

parallel those found in other complex
groups of plants.

Maturation of the comparium. The
initiation of amphiploidy within a mature
comparium tends to rejuvenate it. A spe-
cies created through this process may be
able to hybridize to some extent with
its parents, which previously were effec-
tively barred from exchanging genes with
each other. If even a minor amount of
gene migration takes place through the
medium of the amphiploid, a revitalization
occurs in what was rapidly becoming a
static line of development.

After a comparium has exploited the
possibilities of differentiation into ecotypes,
ecospecies, and cenospecies on the diploid
level, and then has recombined species,
where possible, through amphiploidy, auto-
ploidy, or both, it may still show a new
flare of rejuvenated diversity through apo-
mixis. This device for asexual reproduc-
tion circumvents the exacting cytological
requirements for sexual propagation, per-
mitting all sorts of hybrid derivatives to
be preserved. Apomixis probably repre-
sents the last evolutionary surge that a
group experiences in the course of its
history, so that groups showing this char-
acteristic may generally be regarded as
very mature. Apomictic species are usually
highly polyploid, apparently having passed
earlier through the stages of genome addi-
tion by means of amphiploidy and auto-
ploidy. 9

The study of the circumstances that
lead to amphiploidy calls attention to
basic facts concerning plant relationships
that elucidate the origin of much of the
otherwise perplexing biological variation.
The importance of the various biosystem-
atic elements in the evolutionary history
of a group becomes evident, and the com-
plexity in so many genera assumes new
meaning, as these are found to be but

the logical expressions of the operation of
fairly simple laws.

Investigations on Range and Forage
Grasses

The biosystematic principles that furnish
a key to the understanding of the differen-
tiation in living things have wide applica-
tion in problems of both purely scientific
and practical interest. Plant breeding,
which aims to improve crops for given
conditions and is essentially a problem of
creating adapted new forms, should follow
the basic laws that govern natural evolu-
tion. Therefore, before the breeding pro-
gram for a group of plants is mapped,
their degree of evolutionary maturity
should be known. Several agronomically
important genera of grasses show many
of the complex features of comparia in
the expansive and mature stages of de-
velopment, with series of climatic ecotypes,
ecospecies, and cenospecies on the diploid
level, as well as amphiploidy and auto-
ploidy at higher levels of chromosome
number, and even apomixis or asexual
propagation.

One of the vital needs of the country
is for improved range grasses to increase
food production and soil conservation.
Ordinary methods of plant breeding are
slow, but there are certain short cuts
applicable to plants that have reached the
evolutionary levels where amphiploidy and
apomixis develop, and where the genome,
rather than the gene, becomes the basic
evolutionary unit. By taking advantage of
the constancy of the offspring in apomictic
and amphiploid plants, it may be possible
to preserve the vigor and the new combi-
nations of first-generation hybrids between
even rather remotely related species.

A beginning has been made at this
laboratory in the breeding of forage
grasses by utilizing economically impor-

9 8

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

tant forms of the genus Poa, the blue- from high latitudes with those from low

grasses. These experiments are being latitudes, and, similarly, the combining of

conducted in cooperation with the Soil high-altitude with low-altitude plants, of

Conservation Service of the U. S. Depart- Coast Range with interior types, and of

ment of Agriculture, which has supplied meadow forms with those native to dry,

breeding stocks from their valuable col- sandy localities. A program following

lections assembled at the Regional Nursery these principles should of course also

at Pullman, Washington. Mr. J. H. Christ, utilize the best strains available,

director of the Pacific Division, and Dr. Experience has shown that an endemic

A. L. Hafenrichter, in charge of the species with no close relatives is usually

Nursery Division, have extended every less adaptable to different environments

aid toward the furthering of this program, than an equally specialized ecotype from

Drs. Keck and Hiesey made detailed the same environment belonging to a

studies on the materials at Pullman in species of wide distribution. For this

June, when the grasses were in their best reason, members of widely distributed

stage of development. The grasses in this species complexes should be utilized in the

collection represent an important sampling crossings.

of our national resources, because they are Several simplifications in technique are

selected and tested strains native to the possible in a program of breeding by the

semiarid regions of the Pacific Northwest, addition of whole genomes rather than

Of no less importance is the fact that the by an exchange between genomes. Also,

native habitat of each strain is known, and the opportunity is afforded of tapping

exact records are available on the per- reservoirs of genes that have not previously

formance of most of them for a period of been used for breeding purposes. Plants

years at several regional nurseries. that succeed under alpine or desert con-

A few crossings between species of dif- ditions have superior characteristics for
ferent sections of Poa were attempted many purposes, but they do not thrive in
during 1943, and a cytological investiga- climates suitable for agriculture. By com-
tion of a number of important forms is bining their genomes with those of plants
under way. More extensive crossings are from opposite extremes, new forms adapted
being planned for 1944, and the work is for agricultural climates may be obtained,
also to be extended to the wheat grasses, and by similar methods genomes of value
of the genus Agropyron. In addition to in producing types suitable for marginal
the forms from the Pacific Northwest, a lands may be obtained from plants of the
more southern series of strains is being extensive wastelands in our country,
collected along our station transect across This method should also make possible
central California. Important forms occur the development of certain desirable char-
here from the Coast Ranges to alpine acteristics in the plants. The combination
habitats in the Sierra Nevada. of a bunch grass with a rhizome grass, for

A few basic principles are to be followed example, might result in a type that would

in this program. The inheritances of eco- furnish better ground cover than either of

types of remotely related species native its parents alone. Likewise, breeding for

to contrasting climates should be com- disease resistance might be somewhat sim-

bined to produce constant hybrids fitted plified by introducing whole genomes of

to intermediate environments. This will disease-resistant natural species,

mean, for instance, the crossing of forms Some of the most important range

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

grasses of the temperate zone belong to
the genera Poa and Agropyron. The out-
standing examples of asexual propagation,
or apomixis, among the grasses are found
in Poa. In North America this genus has
developed a remarkable set of species
adapted to environments from the imme-
diate coast to the dry interior, from lowland
to alpine habitats, and from arctic to south-
ern latitudes. Agropyron has almost as
great an ecological diversity, but it is com-
posed of sexually propagating species with
strictly polyploid chromosome numbers.
Whereas Poa has reached the stage of
apomixis and very irregular chromosome
numbers, Agropyron, along with the other
genera of the Triticum comparium, ap-
pears to be characterized by extensive am-
phiploidy. Both should be suitable for
breeding by the addition of whole sets
of chromosomes.

By the cooperative arrangement made
with the Soil Conservation Service, we are
to determine the chromosome numbers of
the strains, make the crossings, test the
amphiploid or apomict products for con-
stancy, and then turn the new strains over
to the Service for propagation and dis-
semination.

The problems involved in grass breeding
are so complex that every principle gov-
erning plant relationships that has been
discovered in the purely scientific investi-
gations with wild species will find appli-
cation. The climatic transplant stations
at Mather and Timberline are invaluable
assets in the execution of this program.

Other Studies

Garden cultures of both annual and
perennial species have been grown to
obtain data needed for rounding out the
cytogenetic investigation on Layia and for
carrying out scheduled studies on the
climatic races of Potentilla glandulosa and
Achillea.

Miss Marguerite Hartung has been
engaged in microtechnical work in con-
nection with the grass program and the
study of amphiploids. In addition, she
has assisted with the records and has un-
dertaken a special cytological study of the
nonhybrid natural strains of Layia that
have been grown over a period of years,
and also of the intraspecific Fi hybrids
of that genus.

The transplant stations at Mather and
Timberline were maintained through 1942
on a normal basis, all necessary records
having been taken. Owing to general
shortages in transportation facilities during
1943, activities at the mountain stations
have been reduced to those necessary for
bare maintenance.

Because of war conditions, physiological
studies on climatic races begun last year
have been temporarily suspended, but the
plans for experimental work for future
investigations along these lines are becom-
ing increasingly mature.

Guest Investigator

From June 1942 to September 1943,
Professor William E. Lawrence, of Oregon
State College, Corvallis, was present as
guest worker at the laboratory while on
sabbatical leave from that institution. His
primary objective was to become familiar
with the researches conducted here on the
nature of species, particularly as they apply
to the field of his special interest, ecology.
As projects for research, he undertook a
study of the ecotypes in Deschampsia
caespitosa (L.) Beauv.; a cytogeographic
study on the distribution of Achillea
borealis Bong, and A. lanulosa Nutt. in
western North America; and an inquiry
into the occurrence and nature of vivipary
in plants and its relation to apomixis.

On the basis of his first-hand observa-
tions at Stanford, Mather, and Timberline
and the records and materials supplied him,

100

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Professor Lawrence has prepared a manu-
script covering his studies on Deschampsia
caespitosa. This species is conspicuous
among the grasses because of its wide-
spread distribution. It is circumboreal
across the continents of the northern
hemisphere and is also found in South
America. Three climatic ecotypes repre-
senting the California transect and two
from northern Europe, including Lapland,
were studied, and showed very distinct
reactions and behavior at the three trans-
plant stations. Despite their racial diversity
and wide distribution, all were tetraploid,
with 14 pairs of chromosomes.

Although D. caespitosa is not viviparous
in northern Europe, nearly 50 per cent of

the individuals in three strains from that
region became more or less viviparous
when moved 20 ° to 30 ° south to Cali-
fornia. New plants grown from their bulb-
lets were found by Professor Lawrence
to have the same chromosome number as
the parent plant. Viviparism in this species
is therefore not accompanied by an increase
in chromosome number to make it iden-
tical with its high-arctic hepta- and octo-
ploid relative D. alpina (L.) R. et S., which
is always viviparous. The same plants
tend to become viviparous year after year.
Since none are viviparous in northern
Europe, and only some in California, this
form of vivipary must be produced by the
interreactions of heredity and environment.

DESERT INVESTIGATIONS

Forrest Shreve

The conditions of the past year have
greatly curtailed the progress of field work
on the Chihuahuan Desert project. Sev-
eral areas remain which have not been
explored. In them the character of the
vegetation may or may not be similar to
that in adjacent areas in which the physical
conditions are presumably the same. Pre-
vious work has shown the strong localiza-
tion of many species of plants and the
occurrence of outlying colonies of species
more abundant elsewhere, and these facts
indicate the desirability of making collec-
tions in the previously unvisited areas.

It has been possible, however, to go
forward with the study of data, observa-
tions, and materials previously obtained.
Some progress has also been made in field
work, through the collaboration of Mr.
Robert M. Stewart, of Santa Elena, Coa-
huila, Mr. U. T. Waterfall, professor of
botany in the Oklahoma City High School,
and Dr. L. C. Hinckley, principal of the
High School at Marfa, Texas. These men
were able to visit critical localities sug-

gested by Dr. Johnston and to send him
collections of plants made in the most
favorable seasons. These collections extend
our knowledge of the distribution of plants
of the desert plains and the small desert
mountains, and throw new light on the
floristic affinities of little-known areas in
northern Mexico and western Texas.

Work on the flora of the Sonoran Desert,
which has been conducted by Dr. Ira L.
Wiggins for several years, has been con-
tinued, and additional manuscript for the
published flora has been prepared. Some
of the large and difficult groups of plants
have now been completed. The collection-
made by Dr. Wiggins and Dr. Reed C.
Rollins in the summer of 1941, in previ-
ously unvisited parts of Sonora, has been
studied. This has proved to be a very
valuable contribution to knowledge of the
Sonoran flora, revealing many northward
extensions of range in the interior and a
number of southward extensions on the
Gulf coast between Tiburon Island and
Guaymas, and also bringing to light 7

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY I0I

new species. These have been published features of the plants that cannot be learned

by Dr. Wiggins and Dr. Rollins. by consulting a herbarium specimen. Al-

During the year Dr. Johnston has been though these plants are mentioned many

able to give a large share of his time to times in the descriptions of the ecological

preliminary work on the flora of the subdivisions of the Sonoran Desert, it

Chihuahuan Desert. He has organized the seems desirable, for ease of reference, to

series of collections made by himself and place much of the information about them

the several collaborators on this project, under individual specific headings,

and has studied the material in the Gray Among the plants confined or nearly

Herbarium collected in neighboring re- confined to the Sonoran Desert, over 125

gions by early botanists. In the recent species are dominant in some part of the

exploration particular attention has been area, and a larger number are locally

given to northern Coahuila, where there dominant or infrequent. Many of these

is a great diversity in topography and plants have been collected so seldom that

physical conditions, where there proves to existing herbarium material gives an im-

be an unusual assemblage of species, as perfect record of their distribution. Field

well as of plant communities, and where notes taken during the years of exploration

very little collecting had previously been greatly augment the records and make it

done. The discovery of a large number possible to prepare maps showing the

of novelties in this area has compelled Dr. known areas of distribution of single spe-

Johnston to give considerable time to their cies and related groups of species,

study and the preparation of descriptions The plants now endemic to the North

for publication. In this group 13 new spe- American Desert undoubtedly include

cies and varieties have been published this relict species of great age, some of which

year. As an aid to the preparation of the formerly enjoyed a wider distribution,

flora of the Chihuahuan Desert, Dr. John- and also modern species which have

ston is now bringing together an enumera- emerged under the conditions of recent

tion of the plants of the State of Coahuila, time. It is scarcely to be hoped that a

which occupies an important place in this close study of the present areas of dis-

desert both geographically and floristically. tribution of the endemics can give much

In the preparation of results of the study information about their ranges in the past,

of Sonoran Desert vegetation, the principal There are a few cases, however, in which

recent work has been concerned with de- the ecological life history of a plant

scription of as much as is known of the strengthens the distributional evidence that

ecological life histories of certain common it is a waning relict. There are also a few

plants, determination of the geographical groups of closely related endemics whose

distributions of some 100 dominant species collective distribution throws some light,

on the basis of herbarium specimens and on the recent development and movements

field notes, and assembling of all available of the genus to which they belong. As

data on the distribution of the summer examples of these cases may be taken the

and winter herbaceous ephemerals. small tree Holacantha Emory i and the

The object of the descriptions of life large genus of shrubs Franseria.

histories is to place on record all that has Holacantha is fairly abundant in a few

been learned from long observation of the areas in the Gila Valley, Arizona, and in

plants, and in some cases from cultiva- the central Mojave Desert, and is very

tion and propagation, and also to indicate uncommon elsewhere. It never forms pure

I02 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

stands and is often represented only by woody species, and by the appearance of
isolated trees in widely separated localities, a form so highly specialized in its fruit
A closely related species, H. Stewarti, is of that it has been referred to a separate mono-
very limited occurrence in the Chihuahuan typic genus, Acanthambrosia.
Desert. The seeds of Holacantha remain Between these extreme examples of the
on the tree for 3 to 7 years and germinate endemics lie many forms which are clearly
poorly and tardily. Seedlings and young relicts, many aggressive ones which are
trees are rare. The growth of the tree is apparently recent, and others whose status
very slow, and its flowering is sporadic is doubtful.

and late in the life of the tree. These fea- A tabulation of the distribution of sum-

tures all indicate a poor adjustment to mer and winter herbaceous ephemerals has

environment and corroborate the distribu- been made on the basis of herbarium

tional evidence that Holacantha is a wan- material, published reports of occurrence,

ing genus, now confined to two species. and localities recorded in field notes. Cau-

Franseria is a genus of about 40 species tion has been necessary in using citations

which has its principal development in from different sources, and the uneven-

the Sonoran Desert. It is also represented ness of the taxonomic scrutiny that has

on the dunes and beaches of the Cali- been given the many genera concerned has

fornia coast and on the coast and moun- made it necessary to disregard varietal

tain slopes of Peru and Chile. The mem- differences, although they are often very

bers of the genus show considerable significant.

diversity in habit and habitat, although With few exceptions the appearance of
there are several cases of very closely re- the two groups of ephemerals is strictly
lated species. Nearly all the species are confined to either the winter or the sum-
abundant and aggressive in their optimum mer rainy season. The distribution of the
habitats, and 5 of them are among the two groups is therefore primarily con-
most common dominants in their respec- trolled by the seasonal distribution of rain-
tive parts of the Sonoran Desert. A few fall. The great number of winter ephem-
species are confined to unusual habitats erals on the California coast, where there
but are abundant wherever these habitats are no other native lowland herbaceous
occur. In the dominant desert species, the plants, falls sharply at the western edge
seeds germinate at winter temperatures, of the desert and declines gradually from
In a group of species which are infrequent the Colorado River to the Rio Grande,
or absent in the heart of the desert, the The strongest representation of northern
seeds germinate at summer temperatures, genera in the desert is found among the
The ranges of these species extend from winter ephemerals. The entire group ap-
the edge of the desert far east and north pears to have entered the desert during a
into the grassland and forest. prolonged cool and rainy period. It is

Franseria embraces the largest group of particularly significant that nearly all the

congeneric endemics in the Sonoran winter ephemerals in southern Arizona

Desert and has shown its vigor by the are representative of species found in

development of the group of dominants, coastal California or the Mojave Desert,

which are often the commonest plants and that there are no clearly distinct spe-

over large areas, by the development of a cies that are confined to the region east

group requiring special conditions, by the of the Colorado River,

attainment of a treelike habit in one tall The summer ephemerals of the Sonoran

DIVISION OF PLANT BIOLOGY

103

Desert are for the most part of wider
distribution than the winter ones. A high
percentage of them are common to the
northern part of the Chihuahuan Desert,
the desert grassland region, and the north-
ern part of the Pacific coast thorn forest
in Mexico. In this group the Compositae,
Allioniaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Euphor-
biaceae are the principal families repre-
sented, and among the genera are many
which have a large number of representa-
tives in central Mexico. Only a few of the
summer ephemerals occur in the deserts o£
California, appearing after the summer
rains which reach that area on rare occa-
sions. The summer ephemerals are clearly
a group derived from the regions southeast
and south of the Sonoran Desert. In south-
ern Sonora there is a very poor representa-
tion of winter ephemerals, and a few of
the summer species are active in the winter.
This is because the soil temperatures of
winter are higher in southern Sonora than
in southern Arizona.

Mr. Howard Scott Gentry, now a gradu-
ate student in the University of Michigan,
spent five periods of several months in

botanical exploration of the drainage basin
of the Rio Mayo, in southern Sonora. This
river crosses the western slopes of the Sierra
Madre very close to the boundary between
the Sonoran Desert and the thorn forest
belt of the Mexican west coast. On
account of the close relation between Mr.
Gentry's work and our own investigations,
he was granted the facilities of the Desert
Laboratory for studying his material and
preparing a report on his work. He has
now published a brief description of the
physical features and vegetation of the
area, together with an annotated list of
1276 species and varieties of plants col-
lected (Carnegie Institution of Washington
Publication 527). The lack of previous
exploration in the Mayo Valley is proved
by the detection of 92 new species.

This publication helps to fill a wide gap
in knowledge of the vegetation of the
mountains of the west coast of Mexico.
The annotated list gives data on the flow-
ering and seasonal behavior of the plants,
economic uses by the aborigines, and habi-
tat distribution in an extremely rugged area
where desert and subtropical species meet.

PALEOBOTANY

Ralph W. Chaney

Progress in the study of Tertiary and
Cretaceous plants in the western United
States has been delayed by war activities.
Dr. Chaney's time has been largely occu-
pied by administrative duties related to the
war program of the University of Cali-
fornia, but he has continued the study of
Miocene collections from the John Day
Basin made within recent years. Dr. Erling
Dorf has been fully engaged in teaching
courses assigned at Princeton University
under the Army Program. His studies of

the Cretaceous floras of the Rocky Moun-
tain area continue when time is available.
Lieutenants Harry D. MacGinitie and
Daniel I. Axelrod are attached to the Army
Air Force. MacGinitie is an instructor in
a Bombardier Training Headquarters, and
is finding limited time to carry on his in-
vestigation of the Florissant flora. Axelrod
is on active duty in the South Pacific area,
and is taking advantage of occasional op-
portunities to become acquainted with the
modern vegetation there.

104

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dorf, Erling. Upper Cretaceous floras of the
Rocky Mountain region. II. Flora of the
Lance formation at its type locality, Nio-
brara County, Wyoming. Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Pub. 508, II, pp. 79-159 (1942).

Emerson, Robert, and Charlton M. Lewis.
The dependence of the quantum yield of
Chlorella photosynthesis on wave length of
light. Amer. Jour. Bot., vol. 30, pp. 165—
178 (1943).

Gentry, Howard Scott. Rio Mayo Plants, vii
+ 328 pp. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 527

(i94 2 )-
Hardin, Garrett. See Strain, Harold H.

Johnston, I. M. Noteworthy species from Mexico
and adjacent United States. Jour. Arnold
Arboretum, vol. 24, pp. 227-236 (1943).

Lewis, Charlton M. See Emerson, Robert.

Manning, Winston M. See Strain, Harold H.

Martin, Emmett. Studies of evaporation and
transpiration under controlled conditions.
iii + 48 pp. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 550

(i943)-

Nye, William, and H. A. Spoehr. The isola-
tion of hexenal from leaves. Arch. Biochem.,
vol. 2, pp. 23-35 (i943)-

Rollins, Reed C. See Wiggins, Ira L.

Shreve, Forrest. The life forms and flora of
the North American Desert. Proc. 8th
Amer. Sci. Cong., vol. 2, pp. 125-132 (1942).

Smith, James H. C. Molecular equivalence of
carbohydrates to carbon dioxide in photo-
synthesis. Plant Physiol., vol. 18, pp. 207-

223 (i943)-
Spoehr, H. A. The culture of albino maize.

Plant Physiol., vol. 17, pp. 397-410 (1942).

See Nye, William.

Strain, Harold H. Problems in chromatography

and in colloid chemistry illustrated by leaf

pigments. Jour. Phys. Chem., vol. 46, pp.

1151-1161 (1942).
and Winston M. Manning. Chloro-

fucine (chlorophyll y), a green pigment

of diatoms and brown algae. Jour. Biol.

Chem., vol. 144, pp. 625-636 (1942).
Isomerization of chlorophylls A

and B. Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 146, pp. 275-

276 (1942).
and Garrett Hardin. Chloro-

phyll C (chlorofucine) of diatoms and
dinoflagellates. Jour. Biol. Chem., vol. 148,
pp. 655-668 (1943).

Wiggins, Ira L. Two new plants from the San
Felipe Desert, Baja California, Mexico.
Contr. Dudley Herbarium (Stanford Uni-
versity), vol. 3, pp. 285-288 (1943).

and Reed C. Rollins. New and note-
worthy plants from Sonora, Mexico. Contr.
Dudley Herbarium (Stanford University)
vol. 3, pp. 266-284 (1943).

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

Baltimore, Maryland
GEORGE W. CORNER, Director

Although the work of the Department sex-gland hormones have developed in

of Embryology, like all other essentially several directions. All these investigations

peaceful activities, has been limited by the are explained below.

national mobilization for war, a consider- Owing to the absence of staff members

able part of the program of investigation engaged in war activities, the physiological

has gone forward. The collection of human- and biophysical studies have been greatly

embryos has received numerous additions limited.

from contributors in many different cities, Several lines of research involving the
including three of the second week. Prepa- use of rhesus monkeys — cyclic histology
ration and study of selected choice speci- of the reproductive tract, physiology of
mens has been carried on, particularly menstruation, structure of the placenta —
several of the Hertig-Rock series described have been carried on in a limited way.
in Year Book No. 41. Early publication Conditions in the Pacific have greatly
of these and other important presomite impeded the importation of monkeys, and
embryos will add a new chapter to the the resources of the colony have there-
history of the human body in its earliest fore had to be husbanded,
stages. The experience gained by Dr. Louis

The work in experimental biology and Flexner and his colleagues in research on

the effects of hormones on the marsupial chemical exchanges between mother and

embryo has begun to yield not only ex- infant through the placenta, and the ap-

tensive observational results, but also theo- paratus developed for that purpose, have

retical conclusions of importance. A long- been applied by Dr. Alfred Gellhorn to

term study of the development of behavior a medical problem of special importance

in the infant monkey has been brought to in war time.

conclusion. Additions have been made to Absences and difficulties due to the war
our knowledge of the structure of the have fortunately caused only delay, with-
ovary in two species which are yielding out fundamental disruption, of the pro-
much valuable information, namely the gram of investigation, and the Depart-
rhesus monkey and the opossum. Experi- ment will at the close of hostilities be
mental studies of the use and effects of the ready to resume work on the full scale.

EMBRYOLOGY

Developmental Horizons in Human up a practical standard of comparison for

Embryos human embryos, especially in the earlier

The appearance during this year of the stages, which can serve as a measure of

first installment of Dr. Streeter's extensive the degree of development reached by a

work on developmental horizons in human given embryo.

embryos demands a special word of ex- Every science aims at systematization

planation to non-embryologist readers. The and precise statement of its data and ulti-

aim of this work, briefly stated, is to set mately at expression of its results in terms

105

I0 6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

as nearly mathematical as possible. In the an embryo or to put a series of them in
case of embryology, however, and espe- order. Wilhelm His made the first thor-
cially in that branch which treats descrip- ough attempt to construct a tabular norm
tively of the early growth of external form for human embryos, in his Anatomie
and of the internal organs, there are menschlicher Embryonen, of 1880— 1885.
peculiar difficulties which have long im- In his plate a series of selected individual
peded even the beginnings of quantitative embryos is depicted as he arranged and
formulation. As simple a first step as the numbered them in the supposed serial
arrangement of a number of embryos in order of their development. The same
the serial order of their development meets principle was applied in the various vol-
with grave obstacles. An embryo is a living umes of the Nortnentafeln zur Entwic\e-
thing, subject to all the variability of the lungs geschichte der Wirbeltiere, written by
life process. Its form is ever changing and various authors under the leadership of
is difficult to characterize except by means Franz Keibel between 1897 and 1922. The
of pictures. Comparison of dimensions is method has the disadvantage that indi-
precarious, for young embryos are very vidual embryos cannot in fact be arranged
plastic and one of them may be flexed or in a perfect series; one specimen may be
twisted more than another of the same more advanced in one respect, more re-
age. What is more, the significance or the tarded in another, than a similar embryo,
usefulness of a given dimension changes; Even after an approximately serial array
to cite an example, up to a certain stage of pictures is prepared, in using it (for
the head of the human embryo is so small example) to date a new embryo it may
and so bent down that the nape of the prove impossible to match the specimen
neck is higher (so to speak) than the successfully to any one of the pictured
crown of the head, and the neck-to-rump stages.

measurement is then the best expression In No. 4 of the Keibel Nortnentafeln,

of the size to which the embryo has which deals with the rabbit, C. S. Minot

grown. After the head straightens up, took advantage of the easy breeding of

however, the crown-to-rump length ("sit- that species to set up norms each of which

ting height") gives the best measure of was based on the collective evidence of

the embryo. Finally, the evaluation of three embryos chosen from the median

human embryos that come to the labora- litter of a group of the same age. Thus

tory is hindered by all sorts of variable he introduced the rudiments of a statis-

factors such as pathological states, non- tical method.

uniform preservation, and uncertain his- Another step which was to prove useful

tories. for human embryology had been taken

Every descriptive embryologist since the years before by the brilliant Francis Balfour

beginning of the science has of course {The development of elasmobranch fishes,

found it necessary to arrange his embryos 1876) when he assembled his embryos into

in a series based on some standard such a series of groups or stages (indicated by

as the age, the size, or the state of develop- key letters) based on the comparison of

ment. Because in the case of early human many features of each specimen so that

embryos the age is often uncertain, and individual differences were rendered less

the size is an unreliable guide, the in- significant. For use in comparing em-

vestigator is forced to depend in large bryos with the standard, the method of

degree upon the apparent state of develop- formal stages has the further advantage

ment if he wishes to gauge the status of that it is obviously more practicable to

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

107

match a specimen to a given stage, having
a certain latitude of variation, than to one
single specimen of a more numerous and
more gradual series.

That the normal series of stages, pic-
tured and described by a master embry-
ologist, is the only practical way we have
to express the degree of development of
an early embryo is shown by the wide
use of Ross G. Harrison's stages of the
salamander Ambly stoma punctatum, a fa-
vorite material of experimental embry-
ologists. Without having been formally
published, Harrison's plates have circu-
lated from laboratory to laboratory until
everyone who works with Amblystoma
can make himself clear to a fellow worker
about the stage of an embryo by referring
to the Harrison number. Similar guides
have been prepared for two or three other
amphibians, and recently }. S. Nicholas
has set up a series of numbered stages of
the mouse embryo for use by experimental
workers.

Dr. F. P. Mall, founder of this Depart-
ment, was the first to attempt a classifica-
tion of human embryos into formal stages.
In a paper published in 1914, just before
his collection was transferred to the Car-
negie Department of Embryology, Mall
published in the Anatomischer Anzeiger a
brief paper on "Stages in the development
of human embryos from 2 to 25 mm. long."
In this document he proposed fourteen
stages indicated by letters, from H to U,
each stage being distinguished by the pres-
ence of certain anatomical features. Stage I,
for example, begins with the appearance
of an arm bud and has three pronounced
branchial arches; in Stage P, the branchial
arches have disappeared, the ear is well
formed, and the toes are outlined. To a
mathematician this may seem a crude way
of constructing a scale, but it is a re-
spectable method in biology and has its
own kind of precision. Mall did not illus-
trate these stages, for he did not view the

grouping as final. He was well aware
that he lacked sufficient specimens for his
earlier stages, and he was under the neces-
sity of reserving the letters prior to H
for the presomite stages, which were then
practically unknown.

In the 28 years between 1914 and 1942
the Carnegie Collection has grown so ex-
tensively that it can provide an immensely
richer material for comparison than Mall
had before him, and there has been a
great advance in our detailed knowledge of
the earlier stages, including the early
somite stages, of which Mall had very few
specimens, and the presomite stages, of
which he had none. The present is the
time, and Dr. Streeter is unquestionably
the best-qualified expert, to undertake a
definitive classification of human embryos
in age groups.

Dr. Streeter has planned to include all
stages from the earliest available, up to
fetuses between 32 and 38 mm. long, the
stage at which the eyelids have come
together. This is about the beginning of
the eighth week after ovulation. Beyond
that time the rate of increment in size is
large enough to provide an adequate index
of relative development. It is in embryos
of the first seven weeks that the external
form and structural organization give more
reliable information as to age than do the
dimensions.

Dr. Streeter proposes to subdivide the
first seven weeks of development into about
twenty-five age groups, of which he orig-
inally defined twelve, as follows: I, one-
celled egg; II, segmenting egg; III, free
blastocyst; IV, implanting ovum; V, ovum
implanted, but still avillous; VI, primitive
villi, distinct yolk sac; VII, branching villi,
axis of germ disk defined; VIII, Hensen's
node, primitive groove; IX, neural folds,
elongated notochord; X, early somites
present; XI, 13 to 20 paired somites; XII,
21 to 29 paired somites. The first four of
these stages are still unknown in the

io8

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

human species. Stage V is now being
revealed by the Hertig-Rock embryos,
mentioned below, and other specimens.
Stages after XII will be defined as the
work progresses.

Because of the size of the undertaking,
Dr. Streeter plans to issue his monograph
in parts as rapidly as they are finished.
He has chosen to begin with stage XI
rather than earlier, largely because knowl-
edge of the younger stages is growing and
the material will be richer in the future
when he works back from stage XI.

The first installment, comprising stages
XI and XII, was published in volume
XXX of the Contributions to Embryology,
and the second, comprising stages XIII
and XIV, is at the present writing almost
ready for press. Each section includes
photographs and diagrams of representa-
tive embryos of the given stage, with
text describing the external form and the
internal structure. Not only the typical
characteristics of the group are noted, but
also the changes due to growth during
the period, and the range of variation.

The work is accompanied by tables
which list the embryos of each group in
the Carnegie Collection and by a list of
those embryos, not only in the Collection
but elsewhere in the world, which have
been described in the literature. It will
consist, therefore, of a descriptive atlas of
early human embryology, an authoritative
classification by stages, a catalogue of early
embryos in the Carnegie Collection, and a
guide to the world material. We are con-
fident that its progress will be eagerly
watched by embryologists everywhere.

Human Embryos of the Second Week

We can again report an advance in the
cooperative program of study of early
human embryos, carried on in conjunc-
tion with Dr. A. T. Hertig and Dr. John
Rock, of Boston. Last year's report men-

tioned the specimens 8020 (believed to be
7 1 days old) and 8094 (believed to be
9ij days old) . During the present year the
Boston collaborators, continuing their work
under a renewed. grant from the Carnegie
Corporation, have obtained two more spec-
imens of this age group, nos. 8155 and
81 71. The older of these is intermediate
between the 92-day and the 72-day speci-
mens; the younger is much like the latter,
and may be a little older or a little
younger.

These two new embryos have been suc-
cessfully cut into serial sections, mounted
and stained by Dr. Heuser with the aid
of Miss Caspari and Mr. Drane, and fully
photographed by ' Mr. Heard and Mr.
Reather. Taken together with 4 Hertig-
Rock embryos previously reported and the
incomplete Miller embryo, the Carnegie
Collection now contains 7 normal embryos
from about the 7th to about the 12th day;
a truly impressive addition to the sum of
human knowledge, for until a very few
years ago this period of development was
totally unknown so far as the human
species was concerned. Each addition to
the group has not only contributed its
own quota of new information, but helped
to distinguish those features which are
common to them all from those which
are individual peculiarities.

The study and description of these spec-
imens is going on in spite of all the
limitations of research in wartime. Two
were published by Hertig and Rock in
volume XXIX of the Carnegie Contribu-
tions to Embryology, as reported in Year
Book No. 41; two more are being pre-
pared for publication in volume XXXI;
and the two newly acquired are being in-
tensively studied.

An Embryo of about 19 Days

One more has been added this year to
the series of important embryos described

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

109

in the Contributions to Embryology. This
is a presomite embryo from a tubal preg-
nancy, estimated to be about 19 days old.
The specimen is in the possession of Dr.
W. C. George, of the University of North
Carolina, who has studied and described
it in consultation with Dr. Streeter and
Dr. Heuser. The embryo is slightly more
advanced than that described by Heuser in
1932 (Carnegie no. 5960).

A Frog Which Has No Tadpole Stage

The Jamaican frog Eleutherodactylus
nubicola passes its life at a high altitude
among rocks and stones, and lays its eggs
in small hollows beneath the stones. Al-
though an amphibian by relationship, it
is in fact not amphibious, for the embryos
develop in a relatively dry environment
and not in the water. The tadpole stage
is perforce completely omitted. The em-
bryos get their oxygen directly from the
air, and they develop rapidly and directly
into tiny frogs. Such a remarkable adapta-
tion of course deserves the fullest study.

Similar direct development occurs in
other species of Eleutherodactylus , and
several writers have contributed informa-
tion on the subject. In recent years Dr. W.
Gardner Lynn, while a member of the
Department of Zoology of Johns Hopkins
University, has made a thorough study of
E. nubicola. The Department of Embry-
ology has been able to contribute to the
illustration and publication of this work.

Even the non-biological reader will be
fascinated by the extraordinary pictures on
plate 1 of Dr. Lynn's paper in the Contri-
butions to Embryology, which show the
change from egg to frog in about 26 days.
During the embryonic development no
gills at all are formed. The tail develops
into a great leaflike expansion, rich in
blood vessels, which apparently serves as
a respiratory organ. The fore and hind
limbs appear simultaneously and grow

steadily throughout the embryonic period.
The central nervous system differentiates
with great rapidity. The formation of the
skull and the hyoid apparatus is much
modified by the omission of the tadpole
stage. The pharyngeal derivatives, because
of the absence of gills, are easily studied
and furnish clear evidence concerning the
origin of the postbranchial bodies, carotid
glands, and "Kiemenreste" of ordinary
frogs.

Hormones and the Development of the
Reproductive System

The work of Dr. R. K. Burns, Jr. on
the effects of the sex-gland hormones on
the embryonic reproductive system of the
opossum has progressed favorably and was
reported in three papers during the year.
This work is based upon the fact that the
young opossum is born (that is, leaves the
uterus) at the extremely early age of about
13 days, and is thereafter for some weeks
carried in the brood pouch of the mother.
The investigator can therefore get at the
embryo for purposes of experimentation at
a far earlier age than in other mammals.
Dr. Burns has used this advantageous
situation to study the effect of the sex-
gland hormones on the embryonic urino-
genital system. Some of his general con-
clusions thus far are explained in his con-
tributions to two biological symposia held
in 1942 (see bibliography), as follows:

Because of difference in origin, develop-
mental age, and previous differentiation,
the parts of the embryonic urinogenital
system in the young opossum vary widely
in their reactions to estrogenic and andro-
genic hormones. Differences in reaction
threshold exist, which may shift from one
stage of development to another.

Some structures, for example the phallus,
pass through three phases in their relations
to hormones: an early "somatic phase,"
in which hormones are apparently not

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

concerned; an intermediate "humoral
phase," in which hormones collaborate
with the constitutional, genetic factors in
determining the form of the structure;
and a final period in which hormones no
longer exert a morphogenetic effect, but
continue, nevertheless, to influence growth
and functional state.

For certain other structures (prostate,
vagina) "critical periods" exist, during
which presence or complete absence may
be determined by the type of hormone ad-
ministered. These critical periods may be
of relatively short duration.

A constant, sex-linked difference in size
(or rate of growth) is shown by most
structures in their responses to hormones.
The phallus of a female, for instance, can-
not be developed to full male size by male
hormones. This characteristic appears to
be inherent in the primordium itself as
one aspect of its primary conditioning.
Large dosages have no power to override
this difference. Though hormones may
condition the form or the sex type, or even
the presence or absence of a part, the size
attained is influenced at all stages of de-
velopment by genetic constitution.

In large quantities, crystalline hormones
typically produce marked bisexuality,
through their ability to stimulate certain
heterotypic sex structures. Male hormones,
for example, if the dose is fairly large,
cause simultaneous differentiation of epi-
didymis and vas deferens from the Wolff-
ian duct, and oviduct and uterus from the
Miillerian duct. The manner in which
this nonspecific effect is exercised is still
uncertain. Testosterone propionate at the
proper dosage, however, is capable of act-
ing as a sex-specific agent to a remarkable
degree.

The so-called paradoxical effects of crys-
talline hormones on heterotypic structures,
at high dosages (that is, the elicitation of
female characters by male hormones and

vice versa), are apparently limited to parts
having alternative manifestation, such as
the Wolffian and Miillerian ducts, one of
which is normally differentiated to the
exclusion of the other. The mystery of
these effects is greatly reduced, as Dr.
Burns has shown by his experiments, if
the size of dosage be taken into considera-
tion. Just how an excessive dose elicits a
heterotypical effect remains to be ascer-
tained by experiment. It is possible (i)
that the normal level of responsiveness of
the tissue is overridden, or (2) that some
of the excess hormone is converted in the
body into chemical derivatives having dif-
ferent effects, or (3) that the production
of other hormones elsewhere in the body
is stimulated.

The work has brought out very strongly
the existence of specific levels of reactivity
in the various tissues of the embryo; in
other words, the constitutional or genetic
factors which determine growth make one
organ or region more susceptible to a
given hormone than another. The final
result of treatment with a hormone de-
pends on the nature of the tissues affected,
as well as on the type and the dosage of the
hormone.

Origin of the Epithelium of the
Urinogenital Sinus

In volume XXX of the Contributions to
Embryology Dr. Burns has published the
full account of his studies on the urino-
genital sinus of the embryonic opossum,
mentioned in Year Book No. 40. The
lining of the urinogenital sinus reacts
sharply to estrogenic hormones by assum-
ing a characteristic histological structure
similar to that of the adult female, and
thus can be indicated or marked, so to
speak, by hormone treatment long before
.it would normally respond to hormone pro-
duced in the animal's own ovaries. The
extent to which the sinus epithelium

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

III

participates in the formation of later
stages of the urinogenital organs (neck
and trigone of the bladder, sinus horns,
and vagina) is thus readily followed.
Dr. Burns' results suggest that stratified
squamous epithelium found in the vagina,
urethra, and prostatic utricle of higher
forms, and under experimental or patho-
logical conditions in the bladder and even
the uterus, in all probability is derived
from sinus epithelium and reaches its rela-
tively wide distribution in the adult by
spreading from the sinus region, rather
than by local differentiation in situ. This
suggests further that so-called "metaplasia"
or local modification of cell types seen in
the adult urinogenital system as a result
of hormone treatment or pathological
change may actually be due to migration
of epithelia rather than to local change.
The results have therefore considerable
bearing on some of the problems of pa-
thology of the urinogenital system in man,
and also on theoretical questions of dif-
ferentiation and growth.

Fate of the Medullary Cords

The ovary is formed as a result of two
successive proliferations of cells from the
germinal epithelium investing the ventral

surface of the mesonephros. The cells of
the first proliferation (primary sex cords)
normally are transitory and of no func-
tional significance. The second prolifera-
tion (the future cortex) dwarfs and crowds
the remnants of the primary cords to a
central position in the medulla of the
ovary. The nature and time of disappear-
ance of the medullary cords has become a
matter of importance because the eminent
gynecological pathologist Robert Meyer has
suggested that masculinizing ovarian tu-
mors of the type known as arrhenoblastoma
develop from medullary cords present
atypically in the adult ovary. Dr. Thomas
R. Forbes, of the Johns Hopkins Medical
School, has studied the question in 55
serially sectioned ovaries of human em-
bryos and young children, partly from
the Carnegie Collection. He finds that
the primary sex cords begin to regress at
150 mm. crown-rump length and usually
disappear at 280 mm. They were not
present at all in the 11 postnatal infants
of the series. Meyer's hypothesis regard-
ing arrhenoblastoma is of course not con-
tradicted by these findings, but if such
tumors do arise from primary sex cords,
there must be exceptional ovaries in which
the cords persist into postnatal life.

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FETUS

Swallowing and Peristalsis in Utero

It has been demonstrated clearly by
many observations and experiments that
in birds before hatching and in mammalian
fetuses in utero the gastrointestinal tract
is functionally active, as evidenced by
swallowing of amniotic fluid and by in-
testinal peristalsis. Such observations on
the human are scanty but convincing. Dr.
Harold Speert has now carried out sys-
tematic experiments on monkeys at known
stages of pregnancy, using a method

worked out some years ago by roentgen-
ologists. Small quantities of radiopaque
substances (Diodrast, Thorotrast) are in-
jected into the amniotic cavity through
the intact abdominal wall of the mother.
Corresponding amounts of the amniotic
fluid are withdrawn before the injection.
Subsequent radiograms show that the am-
niotic fluid is swallowed and passes along
the gastrointestinal tract. The rate of swal-
lowing increases and the emptying time oi
the fetal stomach decreases as pregnancy

II2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

progresses. Since the intestinal contents are intestine. No evidence was obtained that

found to become concentrated, it is ob- in the rhesus monkey defecation normally

vious that water is absorbed by the fetal occurs in utero.

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS AND THEIR HORMONES

Corpora Lutea and Corpora Aberrantia much longer. The corpus aberrans turns

^. . , , i i r out to represent simply an alternative mode

I here has been no thorough study or r . c ' , ,

, . i i • r r i or retrogression or the corpus luteum.

the retrogression and ultimate rate or. the T iri • • i r i •

i , . r Instead or degenerating in the rashion

corpus luteum in the ovary in any or , ., , , . ,

, r , , i • i i described above, certain corpora lutea pass

the lower mammals, and in the human ,. r , , i. c „ .

, . -11 (l us t alter the menstrual now rollowing

species we have only a vague idea about \ . r x . r . ,

r . i-iii their tormation) into a state or prolonged

such matters as the time taken by the . , ,. ;i r ,

. ,. r i existence resembling that or the corpus
corpus luteum to disappear from the . , ° _. i-rr *r
r , . i • luteum or pregnancy. I hey differ sum-
ovary, and its structure at the various • i i r i 1

J , . ^ ^ Tir n ciently, however, trom standard corpora

stages or retrogression. Dr. Cj. W. Corner , J , , , . , , r 1M

it -r, i lutea or the functional stage to be readily

undertook some years ago, at Rochester, ,. . . , , , A , i 1 ^

, , . , , distinguishable. As late as 1=5^ weeks they

experiments on rhesus monkeys intended to ? u „ . _,, ^ . . . ;

r , • r 1 • ar e still well preserved. I he time or their

answer these questions tor that species. , . ,. r ,

T 11111 • ultimate disappearance rrom the ovary

It was hoped also that the experiments 1

. , . , r « . . . . r r . remains unknown,
would help explain the history or the cor-
pora aberrantia, peculiar structures of very
uncertain history occurring in the ovaries
of the rhesus monkey.

In a group of 5 animals showing Cytological studies of the corpus luteum

fairly regular menstrual cycles, the ovaries of the rhesus monkey by Dr. I. Rossman,

were exposed by surgical exploration un- of the Department of Anatomy, University

der anesthesia. The most recent corpora of Chicago, revealed so much of interest

lutea were marked or "tattooed" by tiny in connection with Corner's studies, -just

injections "of India ink just under their described, that Dr. Rossman was invited

capsules. Careful sketches of the ovaries to publish his results simultaneously in the

were made, and by transillumination in Contributions to Embryology. He finds

the darkened laboratory the presence and that the retrogressing standard corpus lu-

situation of solid masses (i.e., corpora teum accumulates a chemically distinct sub-

lutea, etc.) were noted. By re-exploration stance of faint yellow color which he calls

in several subsequent cycles, and by final luteolipin. By observing, in suitably stained

autopsy and microscopic examination of sections, the relative quantity of luteolipin

the ovaries, it was possible to discover what and ordinary lipins, it is possible to dis-

happened to the corpora lutea. tinguish three well defined stages in the

Corpora lutea of the standard type shrink retrogression of the corpus luteum. Dr.

gradually after their functional period is Rossman was able, in fact, to restain some

over, and become more and more dis- of Corner's specimens, the age of which

torted by adjacent structures. Their cells was known by direct observation, and to

become contracted and laden with lipid diagnose their age correctly. His studies

granules. They are still recognizable after also agree in showing that the transition

18 weeks, but probably are not identifiable from the standard corpus to the corpus

Lipin and Pigment in the Corpus
Luteum

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

113

aberrans occurs during menstruation. An
outstanding feature of the transition is the
loss of lipin from the granulosa elements.

Atypical Forms of the Corpus Luteum

When an ovarian follicle is converted
into a corpus luteum, the point of rupture
normally heals over smoothly or (in some
species) is marked by a small crater-like
protrusion of corpus luteum tissue. As a
rare abnormality, the corpus luteum may,
however, be protruded or herniated to a
great extent, going so far sometimes that
the corpus luteum may be said to be
everted. Having seen cases of eversion of
the corpus luteum three times in rhesus
monkeys, Dr. G. W. Corner has made an
experiment aimed at producing the condi-
tion artificially. Since everyone who has
studied the subject has supposed that ab-
normal extent of the rupture in the follicu-
lar wall is the cause of the protrusion, Dr.
Corner chose a rabbit with mature follicles
on the point of rupturing and under
anesthesia produced (by cutting with a
small knife) abnormally large rupture
slits. The follicles so treated gave rise to
everted corpora lutea.

The matter has some practical impor-
tance because if extreme herniation of the
corpus luteum ever occurs in human pa-
tients, a surgeon unfamiliar with it might
think it some sort of ovarian tumor.

In a few species of insectivores, eversion
of the corpus luteum is a constant and
normal event.

The Ovary of the Opossum

Dr. Pedro Martinez-Esteve, during his
stay in our laboratory on a Guggenheim
Fellowship, was given access to Dr. C. G.
Hartman's extensive collection of opossum
ovaries. Since very little has been pub-
lished regarding the structure of the mar-
supial ovary, Dr. Martinez has prepared a

general account of what he has seen in the
opossum. The following points are of
special interest. The cumulus is small and
there is no corona radiata. The zona
pellucida of the ovum is much thinner
than that of eutherian ova. The first polar
body is given of! and the second matura-
tion spindle formed within the ovary, as
in most of the higher mammals. The
corpus luteum is formed from luteinized
granulosa cells. It seems to develop more
rapidly than in the higher mammals, for
at the age of 3 days it is already a solid
body with only a small connective-tissue
core. Signs of involution are seen at 10
days in the pseudopregnant animal, and at
13 days (the time of parturition) in the
pregnant. The involution of the corpus
luteum is not influenced by lactation.

Dr. Martinez describes two features of
follicular atresia which seem not to have
been mentioned previously. One is filling
of the antrum folliculi with swollen cells;
the other is the metamorphosis of granu-
losa cells into connective-tissue-like cells in
follicles in an advanced stage of atresia.
The interstitial tissue, which is extremely
variable in amount, arises as in other mam-
mals, from the theca interna of degenerat-
ing medium-sized follicles.

History of the Ovary

Having been invited to contribute some-
thing of historical interest to a testimonial
volume in honor of Dr. Herbert McLean
Evans, of the University of California, a
former Research Associate of the Carnegie
Institution, Dr. Corner prepared a trans-
lation of the key chapter of Regner de
Graaf's famous book on the female repro-
ductive system (De mulierum organis
generation! inservientibus , 1672, cap. xn).
In this chapter the brilliant young Dutch-
man published the first thorough descrip-
tion of the mammalian female gonad and

ii4

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

established the fact that this organ, like
its homologue in birds, is actually an
ovary. De Graaf did not, of course, iden-
tify the actual egg, for he thought that the
whole Graafian follicle was the ovum.. It
remained for von Baer in 1827 to com-
plete the story. De Graaf s epoch-making
description has apparently been translated
into modern languages only twice before.
There is a Dutch version of his complete
works made in 1686, and an English trans-
lation of this chapter by Robert Knox in
1848. The latter appeared in an obscure
journal and is little known. Dr. Corner's
new translation is accompanied by an ex-
cellent portrait of de Graaf based on an
old engraving, by Mr. D. K. Winter.

MlCRODETERMINATION OF PROGESTERONE

Before his departure to join the U. S.
Army Air Force (School of Aviation Medi-
cine), Dr. S. R. M. Reynolds was able
(with the collaboration of Dr. N. Gins-
burg) to complete a report on the first
stage of his projected program of micro-
detection of hormones concerned in repro-
duction. Using the ultraviolet spectropho-
tometer, with the aid of a physicist, Dr.
Ginsburg, he found that the absorption
curves for progesterone and estrogen are
such that the two hormones may be meas-
ured simultaneously. The test for pro-
gesterone is characteristic for alpha, beta
unsaturated ketones, and by employing
suitable chemical procedures in preparing
the hormone for examination, the investi-
gator may be reasonably certain that he
is dealing with A 4 -3 ketosteroids. The
method does not distinguish between
testosterone, corticosterone and related sub-
stances, androstenedione, and progesterone.
At present, therefore, its usefulness is lim-
ited to experimental conditions in which it
is certain or highly probable that proges-
terone or at least one of the A 4 -3 keto-
steroids is present. There are many prob-

lems, however, in which the method could
be usefully employed, and after the war
no doubt it can be further improved.

Evidence against a Progesterone-Like
Action of Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is present in
high concentration in the corpus luteum.
It is also present in the uterus, where it
is said to increase in amount when the
corpus luteum is functional. Removal of
ascorbic acid from the diet of the guinea
pig is said to diminish the effects of the
corpus luteum and even to cause termi-
nation of pregnancy. These facts have led
certain workers to suppose that ascorbic
acid is an intermediate agent in the action
of the corpus luteum. An article appeared
recently claiming that this substance, given
directly, produced progestational prolifera-
tion of the endometrium resembling that
brought about by progesterone. Mr.
Philip C. Pratt, of Johns Hopkins Medical
School, repeated and extended these ex-
periments in our laboratory with com-
pletely negative results. The very attrac-
tive hypothesis directly relating vitamin C
to progesterone action must therefore be
considered untenable.

Absorption of Pellets of Crystalline
Hormones

Dr. T. R. Forbes, of Johns Hopkins
Medical School, has published further re-
sults of his studies of absorption of pellets
of crystalline hormones. This work was
explained and a summary of previous re-
sults given in Year Book No. 40. In one
of his new papers (see bibliography) he
gives a table of the time required for 90
per cent absorption of subcutaneous pellets
of 20 crystalline compounds, including
cholesterol, 17 other steroids, and 2 stil-
bestrol derivatives. When made up into
uniformly compressed pellets, 6 to 10 mg.

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY II5

in weight, and implanted beneath the skin fibroid tumors or disseminated miliary
of rats, these various substances required fibrous nodules such as are seen in the
from 29 days to more than a year for 90 guinea pig. Two, however, showed pro-
per cent absorption of the pellet. Choles- nounced fibrosis of the myometrium, and
terol was not absorbed at all. The table one of these had marked operative ad-
will be useful to other workers. In another hesions and fibrosis at the site of an
contribution Dr. Forbes shows that pellets exploratory laparotomy; another had a
made from large crystals are absorbed as keloid plaque of fibrosis on the stomach,
well as those made from small crystals The rhesus monkey therefore seems to be
of the same compound. Three different less sensitive to estrogen-induced fibroid
steroid hormones were used in this experi- changes than is the guinea pig.
ment. In a third contribution it is shown Dr. Vargas also made experiments to
that the age of the rats receiving hormone find out whether the pituitary gland has
pellets strongly influenced the rate of ab- a necessary part in the production of fibroid
sorption. When testosterone monopro- tumors in the guinea pig. He found that
pionate was used, the rate of absorption removal of the anterior lobe of the pituitary
fell with age, during the first two months, gland (hypophysis) caused no change in
as shown by the following figures : 33 per the intensity, extent, or distribution of the
cent of pellets implanted at 16 days was tumor process. As an incidental finding, it
absorbed after 12 days' implantation; 31 was noticed that the mammary glands of
per cent if implanted on the 30th day; 26 the hypophysectomized guinea pigs grew
per cent if implanted about the 50th day; if only when the operation had been incom-
at the end of 1 year, 26 per cent. plete, leaving a fragment of the anterior

lobe. Failure of the mammary gland to
Experimental Fibroids grow after hypophysectomy is therefore a
It is a well known fact that continuous good test of the completeness of the
treatment with estrogenic hormones tends operation,
to produce fibrosis of the female reproduc-
tive tissues, differing in type and degree Attempts to Cause Ovulation in the
according to the species of animal. In Monkey
guinea pigs, as shown by Nelson and by

the extensive work of Lipschutz and his It: is now we U known that the pituitary
students during the past six years, the g land contains a hormone or hormones
estrogen-produced fibrosis takes the form having the property of stimulating growth
of extensive fibroid tumors. One of the and function of the ovary, and also that
former students of Professor Lipschutz, substances of similar function exist in the
Dr. Luis Vargas F., spent more than a urine of pregnant women and the blood of
year at our laboratory as a Guggenheim pregnant mares. Complete function of the
Fellow, working on special aspects of the ovary, including the discharge of egg cells,
problem. In the first place, an attempt obviously depends upon successful opera-
was made to produce fibroid tumors in tion of the pituitary hormones. It has,
rhesus monkeys, using the same experi- however, been difficult to produce ovula-
mental technique which had been used tion in adult experimental animals by use
with the guinea pig. None of the 4 animals of the available hormone preparations,
treated with estrogen by subcutaneous im- Except in experiments with the rabbit, only
plantation of tablets of estradiol developed a few successes have been reported. Dr.

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

C. G. Hartman, while a member of our
staff, interested himself in the problem as
it concerns the rhesus monkey. It is not
only a matter of theoretical interest, for
nonovulating monkeys have not been un-
common in the Carnegie colony, and it is
of practical value to render them fertile if
possible. Dr. Hartman published in 1938
the none-too-encouraging results of 104
experiments. He now presents 46 more
experiments on 37 nonovulating females.
Among these there were 6 cases in which
hormone treatment appears to have caused
ovulation. This favorable result was ob-
tained, in various cases, with pituitary
follicle-stimulating hormone and with a
preparation from pregnant mare serum.
Hartman's papers contain a very clear and
instructive account of the gonad-stimulat-
ing hormones now commercially available.
He cites many interesting details as to
their action in monkeys, including the
matter of overstimulation of the ovary (a

frequent result), injury to follicles, recov-
ery after treatment, refractory states, etc.

Collecting Uterine Fluid

Dr. Somers H. Sturgis, who worked in
the laboratory as a Rockefeller Fellow for
several months until called to service with
the Medical Corps of the U. S. Army, was
able to complete the first stage of a unique
effort to study the fluid of the uterine
cavity in primates arid the physiology of
its secretion. By skillful experimental pro-
cedures he made uteroabdominal fistulas
in 4 monkeys, through which he collected
the uterine fluids, measuring the rate of
accumulation. He found that adrenalin
and intravenous normal salt solution in-
creased the rate of flow, and that pilo-
carpine did not increase it. There was
some evidence that factors which influence
the rate of flow locally or cause systematic
changes of blood volume may produce
changes in the rate of uterine secretion.

CYTOLOGY

Nucleolar Vacuoles

Dr. Warren H. Lewis reports observa-
tions on nucleolar vacuoles, made in this
laboratory and in the Wistar Institute of
Philadelphia. Vacuoles in the nucleoli of
cells have often been noted by cytologists,
but their origin and significance is un-
known. Dr. Lewis therefore attempted
to discover correlations between their oc-
currence and some cultural or cytological
characteristics of normal and of malignant
fibroblasts in tissue culture. Studying hun-

dreds of cultures including a wide range
of tumors, no consistent relations were
found between the number of cells having
nucleolar vacuoles and the culture medium,
the extent of migration, the life of the
culture, the number of mitoses, the amount
of pinocytosis, or any cytological feature
of the nucleoplasm such as the number
of nucleoli, the number of fat globules,
the mitochondria, the neutral-red-staining
vacuoles and granules, or the size of the
central area. The article is illustrated by
striking photographs.

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF PRIMATES

Among the contributions of the group Rudimentary Digits

of comparative anatomists in the Depart- Dr. W. L. Straus, Jr. points out that a

ment of Anatomy of the Johns Hopkins f ew of the Primates normally have one or

Medical School, closely associated with the more stunted or rudimentary digits. This

Carnegie Department of Embryology, there statement applies to the second finger and

are several dealing with topics in the com- second toe of the lorises (lemurs) ; to the

parative anatomy of primates. thumb of spider monkeys (Atelinae),

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

117

guereza (Colobus), chimpanzee, and go-
rilla, the thumb and first toe of orangutan,
and the fifth toe of man.

There appears to be no absolute corre-
lation between bones and muscles. In
some rudimentary digits the skeleton is
the more severely affected (fifth toe of
man, hallux of orang), in others the mus-
culature (thumbs of great apes and of
certain Colobinae), and in still others both
of these structures show essentially similar
degrees of curtailment (second fingers and
toes of Lorisidae, thumbs of Ateles and
Colobus). The long, extrinsic muscles of
the affected digit distinctly tend to be more
defective than the short, intrinsic muscles.

The significance of some normally rudi-
mentary digits (fifth toe of man, hallux
of orang) is entirely obscure. The arrested
digits of the Lorisidae, however, seem to be
related to the peculiar pincers-like grasp
of their hands and feet, in which the first
and fourth are the dominant digits. As for
a rudimentary or stunted thumb, this ap-
parently can be correlated with the habit
of "brachiation." This mode of locomo-
tion, nevertheless, is not necessarily accom-
panied by a poorly developed thumb, as
witness the Hylobatidae (gibbons). These
animals clearly are adapted to a brachiating
life in a manner quite different from that
of Atelinae, Colobinae, and great apes.

The evidence produced by a comparative
study of the thumb supports not only the
view that man's phylogeny did not include
a pronounced brachiating stage, but also
that view which denies man other than
very remote relationship to the great an-
thropoid apes.

Crown Pad and Cheek Pad

Most of the specialized superficial struc-
tures seen in the Primates are of epidermal
or glandular nature, for example the
sternal glands of the orangutan or the
ischial callosities of catarrhine monkeys.
Two, however, represent modification of

the connective tissue, namely the crown
pad of the gorilla and the cheek pad of
the orangutan. The first of these has ap-
parently never been carefully studied from
the histological standpoint. Dr. Straus has
recently been able to dissect the head of a
female lowland gorilla, which had a crown
pad although the latter has been con-
sidered a peculiarity of the mountain spe-
cies. The pad proved to consist largely
of heavy bundles of collaginous connective
tissue like that of the corium of the skin,
with which it blended. The cheek pad of
an orangutan was quite different, consist-
ing largely of subcutaneous fat.

Balance of the Head

In man the occipital condyles, by which
the head is jointed to the spine, are much
more nearly under the center of gravity
of the head than in any other mammal.
This human peculiarity is undoubtedly
connected with man's erect posture and
facilitates the balancing of the head on the
spinal column. Dr. A. H. Schultz now
asks the question: How closely does the
head of modern man approach the con-
ditions for perfect equilibrium, and to what
degree does man differ in this respect from
other primates? He uses a simple ap-
paratus in which the head is posed on
the occipital condyles as a fulcrum. The
anterior part of the head is then slightly
heavier. Weights are suspended from the
inion (a standard point at the occipital
protuberance) sufficient to balance the head.
Again, the upward pull necessary to bal-
ance the head when applied at the most oral
point is measured by weights and a pulley.
The percentages of these two weights
in relation to the total head weight are
then compared. In man they are more
nearly alike than in other mammals; that
is, the head is more nearly balanced at
the occipital condyles. Study of ape and
human heads at various ages shows that
the conditions for balancing the head are

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

more alike in man and the apes at early
than at late stages of growth. In man the
head becomes more nearly balanced with
advance in age.

The weights thus found empirically
should be in inverse ratio to the length
of the lever arms, from the fulcrum to

the joints at which the weights act. Since
they do in fact correspond very closely to
expectation, Dr. Schultz has been able to
use measurements instead of actual weights
in studying casts of fossil human skulls.
These (Gibraltar and Rhodesia man) have
the ratio characteristic of modern man.

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Development and Regression of Reflexes,
Postures, and Progression

Dr. Marion Hines, of the Department
of Anatomy of Johns Hopkins Medical
School, has completed a notable study of
the development of motor responses and
activities in the young rhesus monkey.
This work, which might be classified as
the embryology of behavior, will interest
not only neurologists but all who are
concerned with infant behavior in the
human species and with the earliest phases
of infant care and education. The obser-
vations cover the last month of gestation
and the first year of life. Thirty-one ani-
mals were used, including 5 fetuses re-
moved by Caesarean section. These 5 and
15 others were bred in the Carnegie colony
by Dr. Carl G. Hartman.

Within the space of 3 months the infant
macaque develops from a state of com-
plete dependence on its mother to one of
relative independence. At the end of a
year he uses his body like an adult. During
all this period of rapid development Dr.
Hines has kept her little subjects under
constant observation in quiet surroundings,
with the cooperation of a trained tech-
nician. Her success in this arduous task is
made evident to the nonspecialist reader
by the series of photographs accompany-
ing the article. Charming beyond the
wont of scientific monographs, they were
made by Dr. Hines herself to illustrate the
technical points discussed in the text.

In view of the detailed character of the

work, only a general summary can be
given here. Observation of the changing
muscular behavior of prenatal and infant
monkeys supports the idea that the de-
velopment and regression of the various
reflexes and postures are an expression
of the progressive maturation of one part
after another of the central nervous system,
and in particular the cerebral cortex.

All newborn animals show a period of
tonic innervation of the flexors and asso-
ciated muscles. During this period the
grasp reflex is dominant, and reaching
and grasping movements are used in pro-
gression, in righting, and in the early ex-
ploration of objects.

A spastic state follows, in which the
"clasp knife" type of resistance to passive
movement and brisk irradiating tendon
reflexes are present, and in some animals
the positive supporting reaction is markedly
exaggerated.

As the spastic state regresses, coinner-
vations of somatic musculature appear and
disappear. Fixation of proximal muscles
is observed, and the discreteness of use of
distal muscles becomes more evident.

The order of development of response
to sensory stimuli proceeds from relatively
simple reflex patterns to more complex
responses, which increase in their discrete-
ness until it becomes evident that the young
monkey is able to localize certain moieties
of general cutaneous sensibility and to re-
spond to sounds heard and to objects seen
as if they held definite significance.

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

119

Dr. Hines remarks that anyone who has
watched the development of the human
infant from the neurological point of view
will be astonished at the similarity of the
order of the development in the two
primates.

A very striking fact which has come out
of the studies of Dr. Hines during the
past ten years is that some of the char-
acteristic reflexes and spastic reactions
which the infant develops, and then loses
again as its behavior becomes more and
more coordinated, reappear in adults if
certain areas of the cerebral cortex are
removed. This affords an argument in
reverse to support the general theory of
the development of motor activity and re-
sponse which grows out of this and similar
studies on other species.

Development of the Motor End Plate

Dr. Fidel Cuajunco, of the University
of the Philippines, who was a guest worker
in the Johns Hopkins Department of
Anatomy several years ago, prepared in
the Department of Embryology a series
of nerve endings in muscles of embryos.
He continued his study of these in Manila,
and in 1940 he published in volume

XXVIII of our Contributions an account of
the embryology of the human neuromus-
cular spindle. A second paper, on the
development of the motor end plate, was
on hand for publication at the time of Pearl
Harbor and was prepared for press with
the kind assistance of Dr. Marion Hines,
necessarily without consultation with the
author. His conclusions are highly de-
tailed. Summarizing them briefly, it ap-
pears that the terminal loops of nerve fibrils
come into contact with the sarcolemma of
muscle fibers about the nth week, when
the transverse striations are just beginning.
By the 13th week the network of nerve
terminals of the end plate is beginning to
form, and the adult pattern is recognizable
in the 14th week. Active growth and
reorganization take place from the 14th
to the 24th week, leading to the formation
of the large multiple end plates.

Spontaneous movements of fetal limbs
occur before the union of muscle and
nerve is established. Reflex contractions
begin after the nerve endings have con-
nected with the muscle fibers, and after
the 1 6th week both muscle fibers and
motor end plates are in a high enough
state of development to permit strong
muscular movements.

APPARATUS AND TECHNICAL METHODS

Vertical Camera

About Rwt years ago Dr. C. H. Heuser
and Mr. O. O. Heard collaborated in the
design of a vertical stereocamera for use
particularly in photographing embryos.
Mr. Heard constructed three of these in-
struments in the Department's shop. Prac-
tically all the photomicrography of the
laboratory, both monocular and stereo-
scopic, is done with them. The excellent
service they have given has prompted pub-
lication of an illustrated description.
One of the unique features of this camera

is an arrangement for posing very small
specimens under a binocular microscope,
which is swung out of axis and replaced
by the camera. The camera may be set
in advance for any given magnification,
since the distance between the lens board
and the plateholder end of the camera
can be fixed before focusing. The object
is placed on an adjustable stand which is
moved vertically to bring it into focus.
The design and construction of the instru-
ment afford a very high degree of rapidity
and precision.

120

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

DIFFUSION AND POPULARIZATION OF RESULTS

This department recognizes its respon- logical Supply House of Chicago. Lan-

sibility for making the results of its investi- tern slides, better than a teacher can make

gations available in easily interpretable by copying our illustrations, can thus be

form for use by the world of science, for obtained at reasonable cost and of course

general application, and for understanding without profit to the Carnegie Institu-

by the people. This duty has frequently tion.

been pointed out by the leaders of the Several embryologists writing or revis-

Carnegie Institution, most notably perhaps ing textbooks have requested and received

in a passage in the President's Report of prints for use as illustrations. Still more

1937 (Year Book No. 36) relative to the noteworthily, a new high-school textbook

views of Elihu Root on the subject. Dur- of home care and nursing, by Dr. Alma

ing the past year a number of opportuni- Long of Purdue University, contains a

ties have presented themselves for service handsome series of photographs of human

to the scientific and to the general public, embryos and fetuses, especially selected by

We have received, for example, numerous us from our files. The Vanuxem Lec-

requests for lantern slides illustrating the tures for 1942 on "The hormones in human

Hertig-Rock series of early human em- reproduction," given at Princeton Univer-

bryos, to be used in teaching embryology sity by the Director of the Department,

in medical schools and colleges. In order appeared in book form during the year,

to fulfill these requests without interrupt- The volume, which is written for the

ing the research work of our photographic educated general public, refers extensively

laboratory, with the permission of Dr. to the work of the Department of Embry-

Hertig and Dr. Rock we have placed ology and contains among its illustrations

duplicate negatives with the General Bio- several from our collections.

PERSONAL

At the end of June 1943, Miss Rebecca D. service therefore covered the entire history

Hepburn retired from active service. Miss of the laboratory, and the contribution she

Hepburn was secretary to Professor Frank- has made by her efficiency and devotion

lin. P. Mall, founder of the Department, is appreciated by all who have worked

prior to its organization. Her term of here.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Burns, R. K., Jr. The origin and differentiation
of the epithelium of the urinogenital sinus
in the opossum, with a study of the modifi-
cations induced by estrogens. Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Pub. 541, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30,
pp. 63-83 (1942).

Hormones and the growth of the parts

of the urinogenital apparatus in mam-
malian embryos. Cold Spring Harbor Symp.
Quant. Biol., vol. 10, pp. 27-33 ( I0 4 2 )-

Hormones and experimental modifica-
tion of sex in the opossum. Biol. Symp., vol.
9, PP- 125-146 (1942).

Corner, G. W. Problems of structure and func-
tion in the reproductive organs of primates.
(Part of a lecture presented March 2, 1941, at
the Sociedade de Medicina e Cirurgia de S.
Paulo, Brazil.) Rev. de med. e cirurg. de
Sao Paulo, vol. 1, no. 4-5-6, pp. 131-134
(1941).

The hormones in human reproduction

(Vanuxem Lectures). Princeton Univ. Press
(1942).

The fate of the corpora lutea and the

nature of the corpora aberrantia in the rhesus

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY

121

monkey. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 541,
Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30, pp. 85-96 (1942).

Corner, G. W. Eversion and herniation of the
corpus luteum. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp.,
vol. 72, pp. 333-337 (i943)-

(Review) The embryological treatises

of Hieronymus Fabricius of Aquadepen-
dente. The formation of the egg and of the
chick (De jormatione ovi et pulli). The
formed fetus (De formato foetu). A fac-
simile edition, with an introduction, a trans-
lation and a commentary, by Howard B.
Adelmann. Science, vol. 97, pp. 466-467

(i943)-

(Translation) On the female testes or

ovaries, by Regner de Graaf (chapter xn
of De mulierum organis generationi inser-
vicntibus, Leyden, 1672). In Essays in
biology, in honor of Herbert M. Evans, pp.
123-137. Univ. Calif. Press (1943).

Cuajunco, F. Development of the human motor
end plate. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 451,
Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30, pp. 127-152
(1942).

Forbes, T. R. On the fate of the medullary cords
of the human ovary. Carnegie Inst. Wash.
Pub. 541, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30, pp.
9-15 (1942).

Further observations on the relative ab-
sorption rates of pellets of various crystalline
compounds implanted subcutaneously in rats.
Endocrinology, vol. 30, pp. 761-764 (1942).

Factor of age in the rate of absorption

of, and in mammary stimulation by, testo-
sterone monopropionate pellets in rats.
Endocrinology, vol. 30, pp. 765-766 (1942).

Additional data on the relative absorp-

tion rates of subcutaneous pellets of various
crystalline compounds in the rat. Endo-
crinology, vol. 32, pp. 282-284 ( J 943)-

George, W. C. A presomite human embryo with
chorda canal and prochordal plate. Car-
negie Inst. Wash. Pub. 541, Contr. to Em-
bryol., vol. 30, pp. 1-7 (1942).

Ginsburg, N. See Reynolds, S. R. M.

Hartman, C. G. Further attempts to cause ovu-
lation by means of gonadotropes in the adult
rhesus monkey. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub.
541, Contr. to Embryol, vol. 30, pp. 111-
126 (1942).

Gonadotrophic stimulation of the ovaries

of the adult rhesus monkey. In Essays in
biology, in honor of Herbert M. Evans, pp.
227-234. Univ. Calif. Press (1943).

Heard, O. O. See Heuser, C. H.

Heuser, C. H., and O. O. Heard. A vertical
stereocamera for biological photography.
Jour. Biol. Photogr. Assoc, vol. 11, pp. 5-12
(1942).

Hines, M. The development and regression of
reflexes, postures, and progression in the
young macaque. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub.
541, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30, pp. 153-209
(1942).

Lewis, W. H. Nucleolar vacuoles in living nor-
mal and malignant fibroblasts. Cancer Res.,
vol. 3, pp. 531-536 (1943).

Lynn, W. G. The embryology of Eleutherodac-
tylus nubicola, an anuran which has no tad-
pole stage. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 541,
Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30, pp. 27-62 (1942).

Martinez-Esteve, P. Observations on the his-
tology of the opossum ovary. Carnegie Inst.
Wash. Pub. 541, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30,
pp. 17-26 (1942).

Pratt, P. C. Evidence against a progesterone-like
action of ascorbic acid. Endocrinology, vol.
32, pp. 92-96 (1943).

Reynolds, S. R. M. Method for correlating data
from menstrual cycles of different lengths.
Amer. Jour. Obstet. and Gynecol., vol. 44,
pp. 151-152 (1942).

and N. Ginsburg. Microdetermination

of a A 4 -3 ketosteroid (progesterone) ob-
tained from small volumes of serum. Endo-
crinology, vol. 31, pp. 147-161 (1942).

Rossman, I. On the lipin and pigment in the
corpus luteum of the rhesus monkey. Car-
negie Inst. Wash. Pub. 541, Contr. to Em-
bryol., vol. 30, pp. 97-109 (i94 2 )-

Schultz, A. H. Conditions for balancing the
head in primates. Amer. Jour. Phys. An-
thropol., vol. 29, pp. 483-497 (1942).

Speert, H. Swallowing and gastrointestinal ac-
tivity in the fetal monkey. Amer. Jour. Ob-
stet. and Gynecol., vol. 45, pp. 69-82 (1943).

Straus, W. L., Jr. The structure of the crown-
pad of the gorilla and of the cheek-pad of
the orang-utan. Jour. Mammal., vol. 23, pp.
276-281 (1942).

Rudimentary digits in primates. Quart.

Rev. Biol., vol. 17, pp. 228-243 ( I 94 2 )-

Sturgis, S. H. Methods for obtaining uterine
fluid from the monkey: effect of pilocarpine,
atropine, physiological salt solution and
adrenalin. Endocrinology, vol. 31, pp. 664-
672 (1942).

122

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Streeter, G. L. Developmental horizons in
human embryos. Description of age group
XI, 13 to 20 somites, and age group XII,
21 to 29 somites. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub.
541, Contr. to Embryol., vol. 30, pp. 211-
245 (1942).

Vargas, L., Jr. Experimental fibroids in hypo-
physectomized female guinea pigs. Cancer
Res., vol. 3, pp. 309-3 1 7 (1943)-

Attempt to induce formation of fibroids

with estrogen, in the castrated female rhesus
monkey. Bull. Johns Hopkins Hosp., vol.
73, pp. 23-30 (1943)-

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New Yor\
M. DEMEREC, Director

In war research there has not yet been tent can be reduced by breeding. After
any great demand for personnel with the only one generation of selection, offspring
training possessed by members of this De- from selected low-content parents have
partment, nor for facilities such as are been shown to have a significantly lower
offered by our laboratories. Consequently, marihuana potency than those from sc-
our participation in work related to war lected high-content parents. New tetra-
problems is not as extensive as we should ploid hemp strains from quality fiber stocks
like it to be. An effort has been made, have been produced and will be submitted
however, to take up problems brought for comparative fiber tests. Additional tests
about by the war, and this effort has been carried out with improved techniques con-
successful in a number of instances. firm the increased marihuana content of

MacDowell, Potter, Fano, and Demerec triploids and tetraploids, reported tenta-

are actively engaged in a cooperative proj- tively last year.

ect with the Biological Laboratory of the One of the many hazards that have
Long Island Biological Association, under been accentuated by war conditions is
contract with the Chemical Warfare Serv- that of injury to the human eye result-
ice; and the mouse colony of the Depart- ing from exposure to ultraviolet radia-
ment is being extensively used in this work. tion. With the purpose of learning the

In cooperation with the Department of causes of such injury and determining the
Agriculture, Warmke has continued and minimum dosage capable of producing de-
extended his breeding studies with Russian tectable changes in the tissues of the eye, a
dandelion and with hemp, initiated soon cooperative study has been undertaken by-
after the outbreak of the war. By sampling Kaufmann and Dr. A. Hollaender, of the
roots of the Russian dandelion at different National Institute of Health, Bethesda,
levels, he has found a gradient in latex per- Maryland. It is known that the cells of
centage. The latex percentage at the ex- the basal layer of the corneal epithelium
tremities of roots may be three or four undergo divisions, which provide the ma-
times as great as that at the crown. This is terial necessary for the continual replace-
of basic importance in the selection and ment of the cells of the upper layer. Studies
breeding programs being carried on by the conducted at this Department indicate that
various cooperating laboratories. Tetraploid exposure to ultraviolet radiation of wave
plants of the Russian dandelion have been length 2537 A at an intensity of about 3000
grown to maturity and have been sub- ergs per square centimeter per second for
mitted to the Department of Agriculture periods of only 5 to 10 minutes will arrest
for comparative rubber determinations, cell division for a considerable length of
The polyploids appear to have certain im- time. In order that more exact informa-
portant advantages, including increased tion might be obtained concerning the
general vigor, broader leaves, and larger effect of wave length 2537 A on cell divi-
roots. They retain the normal sexual be- sion, Dr. J. Gordon Carlson, of the Uni-
havior of the diploids. The studies on versity of Alabama, was asked by the Na-
hemp now indicate that marihuana con- tional Institute of Health to investigate this

123

124

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

problem by using tissue cultures of neuro-
blast cells of the grasshopper. Working at
this Department, he has found that ex-
posure for only 7.5 seconds at an intensity
of no ergs per square centimeter per sec-
ond produces a measurable retardation in
cell divisions. This result indicates that
dividing cells are extremely sensitive to
wave length 2537 A, which fact was taken
into consideration when the tolerance dose
for that wave length was established.

Since new work brought about by the
war has occupied only a fraction of our
time, the members of the Department have
proceeded with their regular research. A
brief summary will be given here of the
individual reports of the various members
for the year ending September 1, 1943; the
reports in full are printed on the succeed-
ing pages.

Working with maize, McClintock has
continued investigations on the breakage
and fusion of chromosomes. The new evi-
dence obtained by her suggests that the
capacity for fusion of a recently broken
end of a chromosome will be lost if this
chromosome undergoes a division cycle
before fusion with another such end has
occurred. In another investigation, under-
taken to determine the amount of crossing
over that may occur within small segments
of a chromosome, the results indicated that
a relatively large amount of crossing over
may occur between the loci of two mutants
that are physically close to each other on
the chromosome. This is in agreement
with results obtained in studies on Dro-
sophila, where it was found that in several
chromosomal regions frequency of cross-
ing over does not correspond to the physi-
cal distance between loci. McClintock's
studies with broken chromosomes have
been greatly facilitated by the development
of a method for increasing the number of
such chromosomes that could be recovered.
This method utilized differential pollen-

tube growth, which favored those grains
carrying newly broken chromosomes. The
gametic recovery of newly broken chromo-
somes 9 rose from the previously available
3.6 per cent to as high as 90 per cent. These
breakages frequently delete a terminal seg-
ment of the short arm of chromosome 9.
When the deletion is small, the deficient
chromosome is male- and female-transmis-
sible. Plants homozygous for these defi-
ciencies show mutant characters ascribable
to the deficiency. These same mutants are
repeatedly and independently produced
whenever the short arm of chromosome 9
is subjected to breakage, regardless of the
method which brings about this breakage.
Two types of deficiency mutant, pale-
yellow seedlings and white seedlings, have
been isolated. Together with the normal
chromosome producing green seedlings,
they form an allelic series of descending
order of dominance, which is related to a
progressive increase in the length of the
deficiency. Thirteen of these deficiency
mutants are now receiving intensive study.

In addition to work on the extensive co-
operative project with the Department of
Agriculture already mentioned, Warmke
has made a preliminary study, on Nico-
tiana, of the relation of the arrangement of
the microspores within the tetrad to the
number of germ pores in the mature pollen
grains. Results obtained so far indicate
that the latter is not directly controlled by
the former, as has been commonly sup-
posed.

In cooperation with Hollaender, Dem-
erec and Sansome have continued irra-
diation experiments with the fungus
Neurospora. It has been found that the
frequency of X-ray-induced mutations in-
creases approximately in proportion to the
dosage, even when very high dosages are
applied. Treatment with 126,000 roent-
gens induced about 78 per cent mutations,
which is the highest induced-mutation rate

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS I2 r

on record. In experiments with ultraviolet mothers. As the mother's age increases, the
radiation, the mutation-rate curve reaches incidence falls of? to virtually zero. As the
a certain peak and then, unlike the X-ray proportion of leukemics declines, the leuke-
curve, begins to drop. This drop has been mics live to a greater age. The leukemics
observed by Hollaender in several fungi, from the youngest mothers die, on the
In Neurospora it is probably caused by average, much earlier than the non-leuke-
heterogeneity of spores. It has been ob- mics; the leukemics from the oldest moth-
served that 2650 A, which is absorbed by ers die as much after the non-leukemics,
nucleic acid to a high degree, is the wave whose life span is not influenced by the
length most effective in producing muta- age of their mothers. Genetic differences in
tions, that 2280 A is least effective, and that leukemic tendency that are shown clearly
2937 A is intermediate between the two. when mothers are young are hidden when

Kaufmann has continued with attempts mothers are old. MacDowell and Bryson

to influence the fusion of Drosophila have obtained direct embryological evi-

chromosomes broken by X rays, through dence of retardation in the growth of the

subsequent treatment with ultraviolet and ribs of screw-tail mice and resulting dis-

infrared radiation, and high and low tortion of the sternal bands. This supports

temperatures. the conclusion that the unique pattern of

Fano has completed experiments in the unsegmented sternum, characteristic of
which sperm of Drosophila was treated this mutation, is not a direct expression
with neutrons. His findings indicate that of the gene, but rather the result of the
about 40 per cent of sex-linked lethals car- failure of the rib-ends to approach the
ried chromosomal aberrations. Through a mid-line at the normal rate,
study of the data on complex rearrange- The age at which female doves and
ments induced by X rays, Fano has reached pigeons become sexually mature, as shown
the conclusion that the healing of potential by the laying of their first egg, was earlier
breaks is influenced by mechanical stress found to be greatly influenced by both
that may be exerted through movements environmental (seasonal) and genetic fac-
of the chromosomes. Several theoretical tors. Riddle and Hollander now report
questions arising from irradiation prob- that, incidental to the selection to establish
lems have been considered by him. With "endocrine" races 22 years ago, a segrega-
Mr. L. D. Marinelli, he devised a plan tion of genetic factors was obtained in one
for experiments to study the time-intensity race of doves which at all seasons delays
factor; he has also contributed a new the attainment of sexual maturity by one
calculation to the hypothesis that large ion to two months. The genetic influence on
clusters are responsible for X-ray-induced age at maturity now separates this slow-
chromosomal breakage, and supplied a maturing race of doves from another dove
qualitative explanation of the disagreement race to a greater extent than the latter is
between calculations and observations of separated from typical breeds of pigeons. A
the physical action of ionizing radiations, few years ago it was learned that female

MacDowell reports that the incidence of sex hormones, estrogens, greatly increase

spontaneous leukemia in certain groups the calcium of the blood in pigeons and

of hybrid mice is profoundly influenced fowl. The parathyroid glands were known

by the age of the mother from the non- to exercise much influence on the serum

leukemic strain. The highest incidence is calcium, and it seemed probable that

given by the young from the youngest estrogens produce their effect by stimulat-

126

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

ing the parathyroids. Riddle, Rauch, and
Smith have shown that estrogens are fully
effective in increasing the "bound" or non-
diffusible fraction of the serum calcium in
pigeons whose parathyroids have been com-
pletely removed. For this aspect of blood-
calcium regulation in birds the parathy-
roids are therefore not necessary, but their
indispensability is indicated by the fact that
in their absence tetany may occur even
though the "bound" calcium exists at
higher than normal levels in the blood.

In previous years Steggerda has made
anthropometric studies on adults of the
Maya Indian, Dutch white, Jamaica Negro,
and American Negro groups. This year he

is presenting a similar study on adult
Navajo Indians, based on measurements of
150 males and 100 females. It appears that
the Navajos are of medium body build,
and rather light in weight; that their trunks
and arms are relatively long; and that they
are brachycephalic. During a 10-year period
Steggerda has collected data about the
growth of corn on the same plot of ground
in Yucatan. He found that the yield de-
creased because of weed competition, grass
encroachment, and insect pests. Steggerda
has completed three papers for the Hand-
boo\ of South American Indians, which
is to be published by the Smithsonian
Institution.

MOUSE GENETICS

E. C. MacDowell, J. S. Potter, V. Bryson, M. J. Taylor, E. N. Ward, and T. Laanes

The facilities and personnel of this group
have been placed at the disposal of a special
project under the Chemical Warfare Serv-
ice. Dr. Potter has given full time to this
work for the entire year, and Dr. Bryson
joined him in the summer of 1943. The
mice required for this work are being sup-
plied, and responsibility is being taken for
care, clinical observation, gross autopsy,
and histological study of the experimental
animals. The strains of mice especially
concerned with leukemia are being main-
tained, as are important lines of trans-
planted leukemia; but the active work on
leukemia has been virtually limited to the
maintenance of established long-time ex-
periments.

Foster-Nursing Experiment

The question has been raised (Year Book
No. 41, p. 199) whether the effect of the
strain of the foster nurse on body weight at
weaning, as observed in the special foster-
nursing experiment, might have any con-
nection with the nurse's influence, pre-
viously observed, upon the incidence of

spontaneous leukemia. Up to the present
very few cases of leukemia have appeared
in this experiment, but the size differences
due to the strain of the nurse reported last
year have been entirely outgrown. At the
age of 12 weeks — 8 weeks after weaning —
one of the four categories of mice still
showed the effect of nurse's strain on body
weight, and two of these categories showed
an effect of nurse's strain on tail length.
By 9 months all traces of the nurse's effect
on body weight and tail length had dis-
appeared.

The long persistence of the effect of the
nurse's strain on size is the surprising fea-
ture of this result; and yet even more
interesting is the immediate and transitory
nature of the differential influence of foster
nurses from two strains, as compared with
the increasing and permanent differential
influence of mothers from these same two
strains. The mice in the foster-nursing
experiment are all first-generation hybrids;
half were borne by mothers from one
strain, half by mothers from the other.
Mice from mothers of different strains, but

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

127

nursed by females from the same strain,
showed only a suggestion of size difference
at 4 weeks; at 12 weeks and at 9 months
size differences according to mother's strain
were marked. Males showed this consist-
ently in both tail length and body weight,
whereas females showed it in tail length
but only very questionably in body weight.
This finding is apparently due to a sex
difference in the factors regulating adi-
posity, which in females masks the effect
of the mother's strain on weight.

It is possible that the influence of a
female as a mother and as a nurse is de-
pendent on the same mechanism, but if
so why should the effect from mothers
increase with age and the effect from nurses
disappear ? The increasing divergence with
age of mice from mothers of different
strains more closely parallels the expression
of sex differences and suggests that the
maternal influence is intrinsic or germinal.
The final outcome of the foster-nursing
experiment in terms of the incidence of
leukemia may differ from the originally
anticipated conclusion if the interpretation
of the nursing effect offered in the follow-
ing section should be substantiated.

Mother's Age and Spontaneous Leukemia

An important addition has been made to
the list of extrinsic variables that appear
to modify the incidence of spontaneous
leukemia in hybrid mice (Year Book No.
40, p. 243) with the discovery that mother's
age has an outstanding influence. The
mothers in this case were from the inbred,
so-called non-leukemic strain in the second
backcross experiment that has been re-
peatedly mentioned in these reports. The
exact age of the mother at the birth of every
litter could readily be determined from the
records; but this had never been done, for
the importance of mother's age was unsus-
pected. The second backcross experiment
was designed to test for genetic segregation

among 50 males of the first backcross of
the leukemic and non-leukemic strains C58
and StoLi. These males were bred, and
the young (50 or more) sired by each of
them were called a family. Since the moth-
ers were all inbred StoLi, the genetic differ-
ences between families were due to the
fathers alone. When the mice of each
family were divided into two groups, ac-
cording as their mothers were older or
younger than 18 weeks at their birth, the
incidence of leukemia per family of mice
with younger mothers showed a frequency
distribution markedly higher than that for
mice from the older mothers. Indeed, the
divergence of these two distributions was
more impressive than that of corresponding
distributions of the families divided on any
other basis that showed correlation with
the incidence of leukemia. This was true
even for the difference due to the two
strains of nurses, which led to the special
experiment on foster nursing. It is now
evident that the next experiment on the
incidence of spontaneous leukemia will
have to be a direct confirmation of the
effect of mother's age.

A more complete analysis of the data
shows a progressive reduction in the pro-
portion of leukemics as mother's age in-
creases. With the variation due to nurses
from different strains eliminated by con-
sidering only mice nursed by StoLi females
(mostly their own mothers), and with
the effects of the genetic differences be-
tween fathers reduced by dividing the
families into four groups according to the
total percentage of leukemia per family,
the percentage of leukemia within each
group of families was plotted according
to mother's age. The group of "high leuke-
mia" families gave 35 per cent leukemia
for youngest mothers (8 to 15 weeks old),
less than 2 per cent for oldest mothers
(32 weeks or more), and for intermediate
ages points along a curve connecting these

I2 8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

extremes. The next two groups of families action of hybrid young on the mother

also gave their highest incidence of leuke- that in turn modifies later litters, since

mia (25 per cent and 15 per cent) with the same influence of mother's age appears

the youngest mothers. The percentages when only the first hybrid litter from each

fell off as mother's age advanced, as in mother is counted. The influence is trans-

the "high" families; but they fell less missible before the birth of the young, since

rapidly, for the same end point was indi- the young nursed by Bagg albino females,

cated. The "low leukemia" group, start- when classified as above, show clearly the

ing with 5 per cent for youngest mothers, reduction in leukemia with the advancing

showed only a slight decline as mother's age of own mothers. But the influence is

age increased. Thus the effect of mother's also transmissible after birth, through nurs-

age depends on the family (paternal) ing, for when such transmission is pre-

tendency. If the leukemic tendency is vented by fostering with the Bagg nurses,

strong, the influence of mother's age will the decline in the proportion of leukemics

be marked; if weak, any influence of moth- with mother's age is notably less rapid,

er's age will be hard to demonstrate. If With the old mothers of 32 weeks, the

only young mothers had been used, the group of "high leukemia" families nursed

differences between families would have by Bagg foster mothers gave 15 per cent

been more striking; if only old mothers leukemia and the other groups of families

had been used, family differences would were distinguishable instead of being all

have been entirely concealed. close to zero. The mice nursed by Bagg

Another measure of the effect of increas- females show the effect of mother's age
ing mother's age is the associated length- on length of life of leukemics; but here
ening of life of the leukemics. The life again the effect is less marked, being only
span of non-leukemics shows . no change from 70 days before the non-leukemics for
with mother's age. The leukemics with youngest mothers to 50 days after non-
youngest mothers, when nursed by StoLi leukemics for old mothers. Again, the
females, died on the average 120 days average age of non-leukemics remains con-
before the non-leukemics. As the mother's stant. The difference depending on the
age increased, the averages rose regularly strain of the nurse may be explainable by
until they were 120 days above the non- the presence or absence of that part of the
leukemics. The reduction in the propor- mother's age influence that is transmitted
tion of leukemics is accompanied by a through nursing,
delay in the death of the leukemics.

These results indicate that age brings The Screw-Tail Sternum

some change in the mothers from the As the first of a series of embryological

"non-leukemic" strain, whereby they trans- studies on different organs of the screw-

mit something to their young that tends tail mouse, Bryson has made extended

to ward off the manifestation of leukemia, observations on the development of the

The nature of the change in mothers, and unique, unsegmented sternum. In connec-

the manner of passing on this something, tion with this study a series of 12- to 18-day

are matters of broad importance. The embryos have been sectioned, all of the

action appears to be specific for leukemia same genetic constitution except for the

and not an increase in general resistance to variations in occurrence of the screw-tail

causes of death, since the life span of non- gene. This series naturally provides mate-

leukemics is not influenced. Nor is the rial for the study of other parts as well as

change in mothers due to some antigenic the sternum. In the report of last year,

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

129

an interpretation of the striking features
of the screw-tail sternum was proposed,
which placed the responsibility for these
features on the ribs rather than on a direct
modification by the gene of the intrinsic
properties of the anlage of the sternum.
That the ribs, which seem normal in
adults, should be responsible for the dra-
matic deviations of the sternum is surpris-
ing; but Bry son's observations provide con-
vincing embryological evidence that this
is the case. In addition to studying the
sections directly, he made reconstructions
and models as well as many dissections of
embryos especially prepared to reveal skel-
etogenous tissues. He found the earliest
certain deviation of the screw-tail sternum
at 14 days after conception, when the longi-
tudinal bands that subsequently unite at
the mid-line to form the sternum are wider
than normal. Later the widening becomes
more marked, and lateral projections at the
rib connections indicate tension at these
points, whereas normally the sternal bands
are indented by the stress of the ribs
elongating toward the mid-line. Though
the bands are still separate for most of
their length (at 14^ days), the distance
between the ends of opposite ribs is greater
in screw-tails than in normals. Bryson
measured the distance between the ends of
second ribs and of seventh ribs in 29 screw-
tail and 78 normal embryos 14^ days
old. When the embryos were classified
by weight, the average distance decreased
as embryo weight increased; that is to say,
the rib ends were approaching. But within
each weight class this average was greater
for the screw-tails than for the normals.

In the heavier classes, individual variability
was reduced and the differences between
screw and normal became statistically sig-
nificant. Since the greater distance between
the ends of pairs of ribs in screw-tails ap-
peared before the two halves of the sternum
were brought together, it is evident that the
ribs themselves are responsible for the posi-
tion of their ends, and that the wide
sternum of screws is a result and not a
cause of the position of the rib ends.

In order to compare screw and normal
ribs, rib volumes were calculated from the
weight of cut-out projections of sectioned
ribs. The rib volume of screw-tails was
less than that of normal embryos of the
same weight. It seems necessary to assume
some depression of rib growth in screw-
tails which effectively retards instead of
facilitating the movement of the sternal
bands toward each other. In spite of this,
cellular readjustments accomplish the
union of the inner margins of the bands;
but this is accomplished at the sacrifice
both of thickness and of length. At the
same stage that the sternal bands are be-
ginning to widen, as they stretch toward
each other away from the retarded ribs,
they also begin to be shortened. Measure-
ments of the distance between first and
seventh ribs on the same side of i4?-day
embryos show that, within the same weight
group, first and seventh ribs are closer
together in screw-tails than in normals,
and that as the weight of the embryos
increases, the difference between averages
for screws and normals increases pro-
gressively from very slight and statistically
insignificant to markedly significant.

ENDOCRINE STUDIES

O. Riddle, W. F. Hollander, R. A. Miller, F. E. Visscher, E. L. Lahr, G. C. Smith, and

V. M. Rauch

The products of hormonal regulation of adult life. At all developmental stages,
are observable in higher animals at all cross sections of the gradually expanding
life stages, from immature egg to the end cone of organization disclose patterns of

130

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

structure and function which hormones
have helped to form. In some cases it is
clear that a change in the controlling genes
is associated with a modified expression of
a hormone's effect or action. In all cases
the hormones contribute to the regulation
of development, or to bodily maintenance,
or to both. Most of our effort this year
has been directed toward an extension
of our knowledge of hormonal regulation
in those areas in which our earlier studies
had pointed to significant facts and re-
lationships.

Hormone Action in Carbohydrate and
Fat Metabolism

During recent years this laboratory and
a few others have engaged in an attempt
to learn which hormones of the pituitary
gland are responsible for bodily changes
such as increased sugar in the blood (gly-
cemia), anti-insulin effects (glycotrophic
response), increase of acetone bodies in
the blood (ketosis), increase of liver and
muscle glycogen, and increased deposit of
fat in the liver. The anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland, whose hormones often act
upon and through other "target" glands,
is currently regarded as the chief or only
source of these several effects; a useful
test of this view can now be reported.
During a part of the past two years
Riddle, Visscher, and Marvin have investi-
gated the possible share of substances aris-
ing in the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland in the production of the effects
named above. This particular study will
be considered first, and somewhat more
fully than related items, because no similar
study has been reported for birds and
because the results indicate that posterior-
lobe products, though responsible for
hitherto undescribed glycotrophic-like ef-
fects, are not the regulators of the above-
mentioned phases of carbohydrate and fat
metabolism.

Effects of substances originating in the
posterior pituitary. A single preparation,
in the form of a standard powder, was
made from carefully dissected posterior
lobes of cattle which had been quickly
frozen at an abattoir. These glands were
defatted and dehydrated with acetone (to
125 g.), ground, extracted for 3 hours in
alkaline (pH 9.5) ethanol (60 per cent),
then centrifuged, and a part of the extract
precipitated at pH 5.0. The supernatant
fluid obtained from this procedure pro-
vided the substance (preparation No. 779;
1 1. 2 g.) which was first very extensively
assayed for its content of the several pitui-
tary hormones, and was used thereafter
in direct determination of effects on blood
sugar, liver and muscle glycogen, and liver
fat of normal pigeons of uniform race and
age. These last-named determinations were
made on nearly 200 treated birds; and 65
test birds and 38 untreated control birds
were used in comparable studies on the
action of a commercial preparation from
posterior lobes (pituitrin).

Measurements were made of the effects
of single and of daily injections of the
two types of posterior-lobe preparation.
Groups of birds were killed and sampled
after 2 to 5 daily injections and at 2, 5,
10, 17, and 24 hours after a single injec-
tion. At 24 hours before sampling, every
bird was force-fed 15 g. of mixed grain
and thereafter was allowed no food.

The alkaline extract had little or no
effect on the blood acetone of pigeons and
rats. The principles contained in anterior
pituitary extracts that increase liver fat
and blood ketones in pigeons are not pro-
duced in the posterior lobe; it is also
shown that those responses are not pro-
duced by intermedin and are probably not
produced by the "specific metabolic prin-
ciple" of Collip.

The level of blood sugar was slightly,
but significantly, raised at 10, 17, and 24

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS ^

hours after a single injection of the alka- the alkaline extract, their heat production

line extract. At these same periods 2 to 4 was — 1. The respiratory quotients of 3

units of pituitrin increased the blood sugar of these birds taken under these conditions

insignificantly. averaged 0.73 (range, 0.71 to 0.76) ; this

The level of muscle glycogen was not value seems definitely lower than that of

maintained in normal pigeons injected uninjected controls (average for 12 tests,

with alkaline extract No. 779 and fasted 0.81 ±0.014; range, 0.74 to 0.89), and sug-

24 hours; pituitrin had little or no effect, gests a diminished oxidation of sugar in

The alkaline extract of posterior pitui- the injected birds. Data obtained by palpa-

tary tissue maintained liver glycogen at tion of the crops of birds injected with

higher than fasting levels at 10, 17, and 24 No. 779, or with pituitrin, indicated that

hours after a single injection, and at 24 the crops of such birds were emptied rather

hours after 2, 3, 4, and 5 daily injections, more rapidly than those of control birds.

The data of Riddle and Opdyke show It is not known whether digestion was

that this prolonged effect on liver glycogen more or less complete in the crops that

is not obtained in equal degree by purified were more speedily emptied. None of the

anterior pituitary hormones nor by whole crops in either group was completely empty

extract of anterior pituitaries, though it is at 7 hours after feeding; it therefore seems

obtained by high doses of insulin. These probable that, despite apparent ingress of

results involve a sparing of liver glycogen sugar into the blood from their alimentary

(glycotrophic-like action) but not a new tracts, the tissues of injected birds were

formation of glycogen, since, after 48-hour oxidizing little if any more sugar than at

fasts, the values obtained from uninjected the end of a 24-hour fast,

birds were the same as from birds injected Cortical hormones and glycogen storage

17 or 24 hours earlier. in pigeons. In studies on rats, Long and

The glycotrophic-like and glycemic ac- Kendall and their associates have shown
tions of this alkaline extract are probably that n-dehydrocorticosterone is especially
of pharmacological rather than physiologi- effective in increasing the stores of liver
cal significance. These responses are appar- glycogen. With hormone supplied by Dr.
ently associated with digestive disturbance Kendall, a sufficient number of tests have
and they may result from repeated over- been made on pigeons by Riddle and Vis-
stimulation of the pancreas; they should scher to show the absence of a comparable
not be regarded as specific actions of any effect in this species. Doses of 3 mg. failed
hormone. to increase the liver glycogen of 17 fasting

The posterior pituitary and heat pro- (24 hours) young Carneau pigeons at 5,
duction. Some observations on effects of i7> an d 2 4 nours aj fter injection. In 5 birds
a posterior pituitary extract (described treated with implanted pellets (10 to 12
above) on heat production and digestion mg.) during 4 days there was also no effect,
were made by Mrs. Smith. Respiratory Pancreatectomized rats are especially sensi-
metabolism measurements were made on a tive; but in 3 pancreatectomized pigeons
group of 8 birds injected with No. 779 at no effect was observed at 24 hours after
a time when the digestion and absorption injection of 3 mg. of this hormone. The
of their last meal should have been in muscle glycogen stores were measured con-
progress. At 7 hours after the birds were currently on all birds, but in no group of
fed their usual 15 g. of grain, and at 7 birds was an increase of muscle glycogen
hours after their last (third) injection of found.

132

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Since anterior pituitary hormones, in-
cluding corticotropin, were earlier shown
to have some ability to increase the glyco-
gen stores of pigeons, it was desirable to
learn whether desoxycorticosterone acetate
is capable of producing this eflfect. A small
number of tests made on normal and hypo-
physectomized pigeons at 5 hours after a
single injection, and at 24 hours after the
last of 6 daily injections, have failed to indi-
cate any action on the glycogen stores.
Under a stimulus supplied by the anterior
pituitary, the adrenal probably produces a
hormone which increases the glycogen

livers of the two age groups respond about
equally at 5 hours after injection; but be-
tween 5 and 17 hours after the insulin in-
jection the livers of adult birds increase
their store of fat little or not at all, though
livers of young birds double their fat stores
during this period. The additional (un-
published) data of Riddle and Opdyke on
fat stores of young pigeons (at 10, 24, 48
hours, etc.) make it clear that in such birds
maximum storage is reached at about 12,
17, or 24 hours, and that thereafter the fat
stores diminish despite repeated daily in-
iections.

Effect of age on the ability of insulin to increase the storage of fat in the liver

Percentage of liver fat after injection of control
protein (muscle extract) and insulin

Age of pigeon

Muscle extract
(5 hours)

Insulin, 30 units
(5 hours)

Insulin, 30 units
(17 hours)

Young

Adult

(6) 3.86±0.24
(6) 4.52±0.30

(5) 7.35±0.54
(7) 8.06±1.29

(8) 14.75±1.07

(7) 7.57±1.17

stores of birds; that hormone, however, has
not yet been identified. At the moment,
these results serve to emphasize the fact
that species differences are of such magni-
tude that a variety of animals must be uti-
lized in endocrine research.

An age factor in the action of insulin on
liver fat in pigeons. In a study on the
action of insulin on the liver glycogen
stores, Goldblatt noted that these are much
less variable in fasted young than in adult
rabbits. It was earlier observed by Riddle
and Opdyke (Year Book No. 40) that a
first dose of insulin, and a first dose only,
greatly increases the deposit of fat in the
liver of young pigeons. Some comparisons
have now been made by Rauch and Riddle
of the action of insulin on the liver fat of
young and of adult pigeons. The results
are shown in the accompanying table.

An unusual type of difference associated
with aging is evident. It appears that the

Hormones and Growth

The studies described below were carried
out as items of a more comprehensive in-
quiry, partly reported previously, on the
role of hormones in the maintenance of
body weight after removal of the pituitary
or the adrenals. These studies are based on
the view that adequate knowledge of the
mechanism through which the pituitary
gland affects bodily growth must include a
determination, in young animals of various
species, of all generally favorable effects of
pituitary activity. These effects surely in-
clude such things as changes in amount of
food consumption, hormonal support of
body weight after removal of pituitary or
adrenals, and similar support or increase of
weight of essential "vegetative" organs by
both pituitary and "target" hormones.

Hormonal support of weight of pancreas.
Studies reported earlier showed that during

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS ^

the 10 days following the removal of the cent to 10 per cent although food consump-
anterior pituitary gland of pigeons there is tion remained 32 per cent below normal,
a marked loss in body weight (20 per cent) Since anterior pituitary hormones stimu-
and a notably greater loss in the weight of late the production of thyroxin and adrenal
the intestine (43 per cent) and pancreas hormones, it thus appears that at least three
(54 per cent) . These weight losses, except anterior pituitary hormones (prolactin,
that in the pancreatic tissue, could be pre- adrenotrophin, thyrotrophin) share in the
vented and even overcompensated by mod- maintenance of pancreatic tissue,
erate daily dosage with highly purified Action of prolactin and cortical hor-
prolactin alone. Maintenance of the weight mones on body weight and food intake of
of the pancreas seemed, according to those adrenalectomized pigeons. Our earlier
earlier studies, to require thyrotrophin in demonstration of the action of hormones
addition to prolactin. During the present of the adrenal cortex in maintaining weight
year Miller and Riddle have obtained evi- of the body and some essential organs in
dence that hormones of the adrenal cortex pituitaryless birds made it necessary to
and thyroxin (when the latter is adminis- learn whether the similar action of pro-
tered together with prolactin and adrenal lactin on body weight and food intake was
cortical hormone) actively assist in main- exercised through or upon the adrenal
taining the weight of the pancreas after the glands. Although it was known that most
pituitary is removed. of the preparations of prolactin used in
The anterior pituitary gland was re- those particular studies were almost free of
moved from successive groups of 5 to 8 any ability to enlarge the adrenals of 2-day
White Carneau pigeons at 1.5 months after chicks and 21-day rats (and thus apparently
hatching (weight about 450 g.). The food free of adrenotrophin), only tests of the
and water intake of all control and treated effectiveness of prolactin in completely
groups was measured. Suboptimal daily adrenalectomized pigeons could resolve
doses of prolactin (1 unit) and of desoxy- this question. Results of a study by Miller
corticosterone acetate (1 mg.) were each and Riddle, as summarized below, show-
found to provide partial support to the that these actions of prolactin are not medi-
pancreas, and when these quantities of the ated by the adrenals.

two hormones were given together their It was found that adrenalectomized

effects on the pancreas were additive. It young Carneau pigeons fed 1.75 g. of a salt

was next learned that the administration of mixture daily showed an average period of

minute doses of thyroxin (5 gamma daily) survival of 9 days. Such pigeons take little

in connection with prolactin and cortical food and lose weight. Either adrenal cor-

hormone provided still further support to tical extract or desoxycorticosterone acetate

the pancreas. This action of thyroxin is maintained life in adrenalectomized pi-

the more notable since, when given alone, geons. Daily doses of 2 mg. of desoxycorti-

it did not significantly affect the weight of costerone acetate fully restored the rate of

the pancreas, and since its effective support increase of body weight and the daily food

of pancreatic tissue was not accompanied consumption to levels characteristic of nor-

by any increase in food consumption, mal unoperated pigeons. Highly purified

Under dosage with these minute amounts prolactin induced more than normal gains

of the three hormones the loss in weight in body weight when adrenal insufficiency

by the pancreas, during 10 days following was not acute, and it restored food intake

hypophysectomy, was reduced from 54 per to a level almost equal to that of unoper-

!3 4 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

ated birds. A group of adrenalectomized Non-basal (5 to 12 hours after taking

birds given high dosage of both prolactin food) values for heat production were ob-

and adrenal cortical extract showed more tained from 13 birds both before and after

rapid gains in body weight and larger food the removal of one adrenal. The average

intake than has ever been observed in nor- values from the two groups of tests differed

mal unoperated pigeons of the age used in by only 1.0 per cent. Basal values (after

these tests. 24-hour fast) on 6 of these same birds dif-

Effect of adrenal removal on heat pro- fered by only 0.9 per cent. It is evident
d action. Two years ago Riddle and Smith therefore that the removal of a single
made a preliminary report on the effect of adrenal does not measurably affect the
adrenalectomy on the respiratory metab- metabolism. Non-basal values (5 to 12
olism of adult pigeons. Repeated tests on hours after food) were obtained on 37
12 operated adults seemed to show that birds after one adrenal was removed and
their basal metabolism had been affected again at 3 to 7 days after removal of the
only slightly; a decrease of about 6 per cent other adrenal; the second measurements
was observed and the respiratory quotient showed an average reduction of 10.2 per
seemed unchanged. Careful autopsies of cent, and a reduction was observed in all
the longest-lived survivors of that group of the six groups of birds subjected to the test,
birds, together with later experience, cast The respiratory quotients of the two series
doubt on the completeness of the operation were 0.84 and 0.81, respectively. Values
in some of the birds used in that test, and which are known to be basal (24 hours
thus aroused doubt concerning the conclu- after food) in the case of intact pigeons
sions. In this laboratory Miller later found were obtained from 26 birds after one
that adrenalectomy can be performed com- adrenal was removed, and again at 3 to 7
pletely and satisfactorily on young pigeons, days after removing the other adrenal; the
and these birds maintained (on a salt mix- latter measurements indicated an average
ture) free from terminal symptoms long increase in heat production of 6.4 per cent,
enough to permit the desired measure- and an increase was observed in all the five
ments. The two adrenals were removed in groups of birds subjected to the test. Res-
two operations separated by an interval of piratory quotients from the two series aver-
one week. During the present year metab- aged 0.70 and 0.73, respectively. Additional
olism measurements (at 30 ° C.) on non- measurements were obtained either after
fasting birds and on those fasted 24 hours removing both adrenals (15 tests, non-
have been made on a satisfactory number basal; 24 "basal"), or after removal of one
of completely adrenalectomized young only (44 tests, non-basal; 18 basal), but not
Carneau pigeons at 7 to 10 weeks after at both of these stages. These data from
hatching. unmatched individuals confirm the results

It was found that respiratory quotients stated above,
of young pigeons are modified little if at Heat production in pigeons was thus
all by the loss of the adrenals 3 to 7 days shown to change but little during the first
earlier. A few measurements of rectal tern- few days following removal of the adrenals,
peratures indicate that little or no change The direction of the change, however, was
of temperature results from loss of the found to differ in an unexpected way
adrenals, and probably there is no signifi- according to whether the last food was con-
cant difference between the body tempera- sumed at 5 to 12 hours, or at 24 hours, be-
tures of operated birds measured at 5 to 12 fore measurement; the supposedly "basal"
and at 24 hours after food. values (24 hours after food) obtained by

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS ^5

us are about 6 per cent higher, and the roids in pigeons was unknown. Because of

values at 5 to 12 hours after food are 5 to other special advantages of the pigeon, it

10 per cent lower, than those for intact was necessary to overcome this difficulty,

animals. This confusing result at first ap- Dissections and histological study by

pears to support the paradox of a basal heat Rauch and Smith showed that, at least in

production (4.708 Cal./kg./hr.) definitely the race of pigeons (Carneau) most used

higher than the non-basal value (4.244 in this study, the two pairs of parathyroids

Cal./kg./hr.). Other evidence indicated typically lie outside and posterior to the

that this anomalous result rests on a delay thyroids. A fortunate result of this circum-

of the specific dynamic action of food in stance is that our studies on parathyroid-

the absence of the adrenals; such a delay ectomized birds, unlike those on most

has been observed by Brownell and Hart- mammals, are not complicated by simul-

man in adrenalectomized dogs. taneous removal of part or all of the

thyroids.

Parathyroids and Estrogens in the Regu- The second advance resulted from the

lation of the Serum Calcium development by Smith of a technique for

Largely because of the peculiar suita- complete removal of the relatively inacces-
bility of pigeons for such studies, this sible parathyroids. This involves removal
laboratory was earlier able to show that of the glands on the two sides of the thorax
the serum calcium of female birds is more in operations separated by a few days,
than doubled during the short, recurrent Some hours preceding the second oper-
periods when a pair of ova become fully ation, and usually for several days there-
mature in the ovary, It was also shown after, the birds were given dihydrotachy-
that estrogens, but not androgens, will sterol (AT10) in order to prevent the early
cause similar or greater increases of the crisis that would otherwise result from the
serum calcium in old or young birds of rapid decline of the serum calcium. The
either sex and in pigeons deprived of such feeding of calcium gluconate also was
organs as the pituitary, testis, pancreas, and found especially efTective in preventing the
thyroid. Though others have shown that symptoms of hypoparathyroidism,
the parathyroid gland normally assists in A third and much desired test has been
the regulation of the serum calcium, very made on 25 of these animals by Riddle and
little is known of the mechanism by which Rauch. In pigeons completely deprived of
either parathyroids or estrogens exert this their parathyroids, estrogens were found to
action. Whatever this mechanism may be, increase the serum calcium as effectively
it probably is more or less concerned in as in intact animals. Heavy dosage with
bone growth and in the formation of cal- estrone or estradiol benzoate during 4 or
cium phosphate stones in the urinary tract. 5 days sometimes raised the calcium level
During the past year four distinct advances by as much as 500 per cent. In all the 10
have been made in a still unfinished study cases in which a second (or third) period
of this problem; and cooperative studies on of estrogen dosage was given, the serum
two different phases of the problem have calcium rose for a second or third time
been undertaken with two research groups above a pre-injection level that was defi-
in New York City. nitely subnormal. The parathyroids are

Though complete removal of the para- therefore not essential to this action. It

thyroids was necessary in order to learn was found, however, that following the

what estrogens can do in their absence, the termination of a series of estrogen injec-

location and distribution of the parathy- tions, and while the calcium level is still at

i3 6

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

or above normal, some of these birds may
show tetany or even die in convulsions. It
is evident, therefore, that the injected estro-
gen does not fully replace the normal
action of the parathyroids, but affects solely
or mainly the nondiflfusible (or "bound")
calcium.

Some attention is being given to the
effects of both parathyroidectomy and
estrogen dosage on bone resorption and
bone deposition. The skulls of these oper-
ated and treated animals, including some
which were both parathyroidectomized
and hypophysectomized by Smith, are
being utilized in a special study by Dr.
E. P. Fowler, under the auspices of the
Central Bureau of Research of the Ameri-
can Otological Society.

Finally, estrogen treatments of unoper-
ated birds of both sexes, and also those
phases of the reproductive cycle of females
which involve highest and lowest points in
apparent parathyroid activity, are being
utilized by Rauch and Riddle in an effort
to provide a functional interpretation of
the histology of the parathyroid glands.
Although this study is unfinished, it now
seems that the so-called "light cells" under-
go increase in number and in size, acquire
a more granular cytoplasm, and have
smaller fat droplets at a time when para-
thyroid activity, estrogens, and serum cal-
cium are all at higher levels.

During the latter part of the present year
our laboratory has cooperated with Dr.
Ephraim Shorr, Department of Medicine,
Cornell Medical College, in a study of the
calcium, phosphate, and citrate changes in
the bones of pigeons at ovulation and dur-
ing ovarian inactivity.

Endocrine Races and Records

During the past twenty-two years a large
amount of breeding data, and a larger
amount of data on weights and measure-
ments of organs of endocrine significance

from selected inbred strains, have been
obtained for many races of doves and
pigeons. These records are now being
analyzed and summarized with the special
aid of Dr. Hollander. During the past
sixteen years the basal metabolism of mem-
bers of all these races and their hybrids
has been intensively investigated, and the
summarization of these records has en-
gaged most of Mrs. Smith's time during
much of the present year. It is hoped that
all results of this prolonged study of heat
production, as affected by race, sex, hy-
bridity, season, etc., may be reported next
year.

Current breeding tests supervised by
Hollander involve outcrosses of the her-
maphrodite-producing stock, as briefly de-
scribed last year, and further genetic tests
with "scraggly" and ataxia. The latter
characters are being recombined with fea-
tures of the White Carneau. This should
provide a useful check on the mode of
inheritance of ataxia, and will perhaps
perpetuate these interesting mutations in
a more vigorous stock. The breeding
studies incident to a clarification of the re-
lation of goiter to embryonic vigor are
mentioned in another part of this report.

In the analysis of the data for organ
weights from individuals of many genera-
tions of the various races or strains of both
doves and pigeons, it is found that in most
races there exists a sex difference in body
weight, liver weight, intestinal length,
spleen weight, and thyroid weight. Rather
generally the several organs listed are
heavier in the female, although body
weight is greater in the male. Much less
adequate evidence for this conclusion was
cited several years ago (Year Books Nos.
27, 28).

A summary, now almost complete, of
data on the relation of race and season
of origin to the age at which an individual
female dove or pigeon becomes sexually

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

137

mature deserves special mention. On the
basis of the much less abundant data avail-
able 12 years ago (Year Book No. 30) it
was noted that, although genetic racial
differences are evident, birds hatched in
the period from September to January usu-
ally become sexually mature (lay their
first egg) at an earlier age than do birds

modify or determine the median age at
which the first egg is produced. This
genetic difference is particularly evident
for the two races of ring doves, which
differ more from each other than the early-
maturing dove race differs from pigeons —
another species. In the doves this genetic
difference is especially significant since it

MAR. APR.

MAY JUNE

JULY

AUG. SEPT.

OCT.

NOV.

DEC

JAN.

FEB.

MONTH OF ORIGIN
Fig. 1. Parallel fluctuation of age at first ovulation in females of a late-maturing race of ring
doves (272A), of an early-maturing race (263A), and of two representative breeds of pigeons.
Both month of birth and genes (race) affect the age at which sexual maturity is attained. The
points on the curves are median values for the number of birds indicated by the numerals.

hatched in the period from February to
June. The data obtained to date for two
of our selected ("endocrine") races of
doves, and for a large and a small race
of pigeons, have been graphed by Hol-
lander in the form shown in figure 1.

The graph shows that age at sexual
maturity, in all the four races, is markedly
affected by an environmental factor,
namely, something associated with season.
It is also made clear that genetic factors

is an example of a character which was
unintentionally segregated and established
by the selection involved in the formation
of these two "endocrine" races.

Relation of Goiter in Pigeons to
Embryonic Vigor

Last year's report briefly noted an ap-
parent relation between weakness in pigeon
embryos and endemic goiter in their par-
ents. Investigations led by Hollander have

i38

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

yielded significant results. A survey of a
large amount of data indicates that in
adult pigeons the weight of thyroids which
may properly be called "normal" seldom
exceeds 0.02 per cent of the body weight.
Since thyroids exceeding 0.02 per cent of
body weight have been fairly frequent in
our colony of pigeons, and since their
histology had suggested a deficiency of
iodine, a test of the curative effect of add-
ing potassium iodide to the diet was con-
ducted over a period of 6 months. During
this period 31 pairs of breeding birds re-
ceived a supplement of KI in their mineral
or grit mixture; the amount consumed
weekly was not more than 0.5 mg. of KI
per bird, and the average supplementary

thyroids of the 5 female parents were ex-
amined and found to be goitrous (3 to 5
times normal). Unilateral thyroidectomy
was performed on 3 of them and the glands
examined histologically (all hypertrophic,
no colloid) . Thereafter these females were
given doses of 10 mg. of KI, and in most
instances the dose was repeated about once
each month. Records for production of
weak young before and after treatment
were strikingly different. Previous to treat-
ment, all the young from these selected
pairs were weak at hatching; following
treatment, none of the 23 young obtained
was weak at hatching.

The condition in the newly hatched
young which is here called "weakness"

Effect of adding potassium iodide to the food of pigeons on the vigor of their offspring

at hatching

No. OF

PAIRS

Total eggs

Hatched

Young at hatching

Group

Vigorous

Weak

Iodized

Control

31
24

200
161

138 (69%)
103 (64%)

132 (96%)
53 (51%)

6 (4%)
50 (49%)

intake was probably about 0.2 mg. Twenty-
four breeding pairs, caged in the same
building, served as control; they received
the regular diet with no KI supplement.
In each group the usual genetic types of
pigeons in the colony were represented.
The favorable effect of the KI supplement
on the young is indicated in the accom-
panying table.

Sample thyroids taken from newly
hatched young of these two groups showed
that eggs from iodized parents produced
young with thyroids ranging from 2 to 5
mg. Those from the control group were
much more often enlarged, ranging from
about 3 to 30 mg.

Five pairs of parents with exceptional
records for the production of weakling
young were selected for special study. The

consisted not only of evident debility but
of anemia and defective closure of the
umbilicus. These several symptoms may
or may not appear together. In general,
the affected young are perfectly formed
and not stunted.

Histological studies were made by Lahr
on thyroids of three groups or types of
day-old young. These groups included
normal young from normal parents, normal
young from Kl-treated goitrous parents,
and weak young from goitrous parents.
The glands of the normal young contained
small, round follicles with medium-high
epithelia and with small amounts of stain-
able colloid in some follicles. Those from
Kl-treated goitrous parents had thyroids
similar to those of the normal young but
showing greater amounts of a denser col-

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

139

loid. The weak young from goitrous par-
ents had thyroids with a higher epithelium,
with some hyperemia of the gland, and
with no colloid. With a single exception,
the large thyroids found in Carneau
pigeons aged 2 to 3 months were simple
goiters (hyperactive glands). In them the
epithelia were high and there was either
no colloid or mere traces of a watery
colloid. When KI was fed directly lo birds
of this age and thyroid type, the epithelia
became very low (resting) and consider-
able amounts of densely staining colloid
were present.

In untreated adult birds approximately
two-thirds of the large thyroids found
were similar to those of pigeons aged 2
months. The other third of adult
had goiters of colloid type, with
follicles filled with a diffuse col-
and with very atrophic epithelia.
A few marginal follicles scattered among
the atrophic ones might appear normal
or even hypertrophied. Regardless of
their earlier condition, all birds that had
been treated, even several months be-
fore, with desiccated thyroid tissue or KI
were found uniformly to have resting epi-
thelia and fair quantities of dense colloid.

The above breeding data and the asso-
ciated histological study show that, in the
absence of supplementary iodine, goiter
has developed frequently; this in turn indi-
cates that the iodine content of the basic
diet (and water supply) was too low for
some pigeons of our colony. Simple goiter
in the parent birds results in simple goiter
in their embryos at hatching, and here it

to 3
birds
huge
loid

is associated with weakness. Correction of
the goiter in the parents by iodine therapy
prevents both goiter and weakness in the
young.

Steroid Hormones and Maternal
Behavior in Doves

Following the termination of earlier
studies on the induction of maternal be-
havior in fowl and rats by various hor-
mones, Lahr and Riddle have conducted
a series of tests on the action of certain
steroid hormones, when administered as
subcutaneously implanted pellets, in ring
doves. The pellets were removed after a
period of 8 to 12 days. In these studies,
not entirely completed, both immature and
adult birds of both sexes were subjected
to brief tests. It has been found that com-
plete incubation, with subsequent feeding
of young, can be induced promptly in
previously unmated adult birds of either
sex by progesterone or by desoxycortico-
sterone acetate. Only about half of the
adolescent males, and none of three im-
mature females hitherto tested, responded
to progesterone. Some evidence indicates
that testosterone propionate induces broodi-
ness in both adolescent and adult females.
Unimplanted controls, otherwise similarly
tested, do not become broody within the
time limits set for these tests. That the
effective steroids tend to induce a release of
prolactin from the bird's own pituitary is
indicated by a concurrent enlargement of
the dove's crop sacs and usually by secre-
tion of crop milk after the normal interval.

THE GENE

M. Demerec, B. P. Kaufmann, U. Fano, Eva R. Sansome, and Helen Gay

Radiation Experiments tutes an industrial hazard of major im-

E fleets of ultraviolet radiation on mitosis, portance in the present war emergency.

Injury to the human eye resulting from Adequate protection against ultraviolet can

exposure to ultraviolet radiation consti- be assured, but through negligence or ac-

140

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

cident it is not always obtained; and there-
fore it becomes important to determine
the minimum dosage which can produce
detectable changes in the tissues of the eye.
Dr. Kaufmann and Miss Gay have been
cooperating with Dr. A. Hollaender, of the
National Institute of Health, Bethesda,
Maryland, in a study of the effects of ultra-
violet radiation on the mitotic cells of the
corneal epithelium. In the preliminary
work, eyes of various mammals were used,
including the mouse, rat, cat, rabbit, and
monkey. Of these the rabbit cornea proved
most adaptable for the type of analysis
undertaken. The corneal epithelium of
this animal consists of four to five layers
of cells resting on the underlying connec-
tive tissue. Under normal conditions mi-
toses can be found in the basal layer. To
facilitate identification of the various stages
of mitosis, a technique was devised for
stripping the epithelium as a unit from
the entire cornea, staining in acetic orcein
(which colors the nuclei without clouding
the surrounding cytoplasm), flattening, and
mounting in euparal. Nuclei of the basal
layer can be recognized clearly despite the
overlying cells, and the mitotic stages can
be identified with great accuracy, except
possibly the earliest prophases and verv
late telophases.

Survey of a series of eyes from normal
or untreated rabbits revealed considerable
variability in the number of mitoses per
unit of area. Striking differences were
found not only between different animals,
but also between the two eyes of one
animal, and even within the area of a
single cornea. For example, inspection of
the flattened epithelium of an entire cornea
gave the following numbers of mitoses per
square millimeter in a series of four arbi-
trarily determined concentric rings pro-
ceeding outward from the center: (1) 31.7,
( 2 ) 3°7> (3) 2 3-4> (4) 9- 2 5- Much greater

variability is found to exist when smaller
areas are compared.

Experiments with ultraviolet have been
restricted to radiation of wave length
2537 A. One eye of the animal was treated;
the other served as a control. Destructive
and damaging effects of ultraviolet irradia-
tion on the corneal epithelium had been
obtained in several earlier experiments, but
the effect on the dividing cells was less
well known. Our work has shown that
an exposure of 5 to 10 minutes, at an in-
tensity of about 3000 ergs per square centi-
meter per second, blocks all mitotic activity,
so that 7 to 8 hours after irradiation no
metaphases or anaphases are detectable.
Although the smallest dose necessary to
produce such a blocking effect can readily
be determined, it is less easy to measure
the minimum dose that can upset or alter
the rate of mitotic activity. One of the
chief handicaps to this analysis is the con-
siderable variability in frequency of mitosis
in the corneal epithelium, as a result of
which control or standard values are not
readily obtained. For these reasons, it
seemed desirable to collect data of the type
desired from more suitable material; and
Dr. J. Gordon Carlson, of the University
of Alabama, was requested by the National
Institute of Health to lend his services and
the tissue-culture method that he had per-
fected in a more direct attack on the
problem.

Dr. Carlson spent the summer months
at the Department of Genetics on a pre-
liminary study of the effects of ultraviolet
radiation of wave length 2537 A on the
neuroblast cells of the grasshopper, Chorto-
phaga viridifasciata. These cells can be
grown in artificial culture medium, where
they can be kept under continuous ob-
servation with the microscope; they are
sufficiently large so that all stages of mitosis
can be recognized and studied; and they
are situated on the surface of the embryo,

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS j.j

so that the ultraviolet rays enter them matrix. Evidence from ultraviolet treat-
without loss through absorption by over- ment supports this concept in two respects,
lying tissues. During treatment the left First, the well formed chromosomes of
half of each embryo was shielded to serve late prophase, if irradiated just before
as the control. Counts were made of the breakdown of the nuclear membrane, are
numbers of neuroblasts passing through gradually supplanted by groups of small
metaphase and anaphase in both the con- granules resembling nucleoli. These subse-
trol and the irradiated side of the embryo quently disappear as the chromatin threads
during the 6-hour period beginning with re-form. Second, the fully developed chro-
treatment, and the effects were expressed mosomes, if treated after the breakdown
as the ratio of the treated to the control of the nuclear membrane, develop many
numbers. At an intensity of no ergs per small nucleolus-like bodies at telophase
square centimeter per second this ratio is instead of the two larger nucleoli typical
0.97, 0.76, 0.61, and 0.58 for exposures of of the untreated cell. These changes sug-
7.5, 15, 60, and 240 seconds, respectively, gest that the ultraviolet affects the nucleoli
Experiments on the effects of fractionated indirectly through the matrix of the chro-
treatment and of treatments at different mosome. If the cell is in interphase or
intensities are still incomplete; but present prophase, however, at the time of treat-
results suggest that within certain limits ment, the two nucleoli are gradually trans-
these factors are less important than the formed from their normal irregular, dif-
total dosage. fuse, granular form into highly refractile,

The mitotic effect of ultraviolet radiation regular spherules. This change, which is

is similar to that of X radiation, in that reversible, reaches a maximum of develop-

the number of metaphases and anaphases ment less than an hour after a 2-minute

decreases rapidly after treatment because treatment.

of a blocking of cells in prophase. It differs Radiation experiments with Neurospora.

strikingly from the X-ray effect, however, Studies on the effects of ultraviolet and X

in the absence of a compensatory period radiation in inducing mutations in Neuro-

after recovery, the number of metaphases spora crassa have been continued by Mrs.

and anaphases never rising significantly Sansome, Dr. Demerec, and Miss Zimmer,

above the normal. This result is probably in collaboration with Dr. Hollaender. This

due to distribution of the effect over a fungus has the disadvantage that, because

considerable portion of the prophase and of its rapid spreading growth, the number

possibly even interphase stages, and the of spores that can be isolated in each

resulting failure of abnormally large num- experiment is limited. It has the great

bers of cells to accumulate in a limited advantage, however, of being amenable to

blocked stage. genetical analysis; the variants produced

Changes are also produced in the nu- may be tested genetically, and the results
cleoli. These are a pair of nuclear bodies obtained may be used as a check on other
that develop during the reconstitution of fungi which do not have a sexual stage
the nucleus at telophase. Normally they and therefore cannot themselves be sub-
form at a distal constriction on one of the jected to genetical test,
larger pair of chromosomes. Since they In the ultraviolet work, experiments were
arise as the matrix of the chromosome continued with the wave length 2650 A,
disappears, they are often looked upon as which had been shown to be that most
accumulations of a material from the effective in producing mutations. Two

142

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

repeat experiments confirmed the low
effectiveness of wave length 2280. Two
experiments with 2937 gave results inter-
mediate between those for 2280 and those
for 2650. In six out of eight experiments,
the percentage of mutants reached a peak
at a certain energy level and dropped with
increase of energy. The peak occurred at
approximately the same energy level in
each experiment, but the height of the
peak varied from experiment to experi-
ment. The decline in the mutation rate is
associated with low survival rate. One
particular F1+ line consistently gave low
mutation rates and failed to give the char-
acteristic curve. It is thought that the shape
of the mutation curve and the fact that
spore samples differ in their actual muta-
tion rate may be caused by the spores'
being heterogeneous in their response to
ultraviolet radiation. It is possible that
spores differ in their capacity to absorb
ultraviolet radiation, or that the nuclear
response differs at different stages. A num-
ber of the ultraviolet-induced mutants are
being tested to determine the frequency of
mutants having more than one induced
change. Preliminary investigations indi-
cate that 15 out of 39 cases tested may be
such mutants. This extremely high co-
incidence of mutations tends to confirm
the supposition that the spores are hetero-
geneous in their response to ultraviolet
radiation.

Further X-radiation experiments using
a wave length of 0.3 A were made. There
was a possibility that mutant spores might
differ from normal in their times of germi-
nation or in their survival value, in such
a way that the proportions of mutants to
normals might vary according to whether
early- or late-germinating spores were
taken. Accordingly, spores isolated on the
first day of germination were kept sepa-
rate from those isolated on the second and
third days, and the mutation rates of the

two groups were compared. There was
no significant difference between the per-
centages of mutants in early- and in late-
germinating spores. This has considerable
practical importance, since it means that
the mutation rate may be established from
samples of spores taken at any convenient
time; it is not necessary to isolate all the
spores that germinate on a particular set
of plates.

The results obtained from different dos-
ages at low intensity (about 240 roentgens
per minute) are given below. The differ-
ence in dosage was effected by varying
the time of exposure.

Dosage (r)

° v ' survivors

Control 810

2,250 723

4,500 421

9,000 677

13,500 ••••• 592

18,000 640

22,500 204

31,500 325

Per cent
mutants

0.6
2.8
5.0
6.2

74
10.6
16.7
24.6

The rise in mutation rate with increased
dosage approximates a linear increase.
There is no drop in the rate above a cer-
tain dosage point, as in the case of ultra-
violet-irradiated spores. The survival ratio
is difficult to determine in Neurospora be-
cause of the rapid growth of the early-
germinating spores. Moreover, X-radiation
treatment somewhat accelerates the germi-
nation of the spores, so that the survival
ratio cannot be determined by sampling
the control and irradiated spores at definite
times; all the spores that germinate on a
particular plate must be recorded. Never-
theless it has been established that, even
at 31,500 r, about half the spores survive
the treatment as compared with the num-
ber of control survivors. Since it was de-
sired to increase the dosage until an appre-
ciable amount of killing was obtained, still
higher dosages were given. For these it

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

143

was necessary to use higher intensity than
can conveniently be delivered by our in-
strument; and we are indebted to Mr. L. D.
Marinelli and Dr. R. S. Anderson, of the
Biophysics Department of the Memorial
Hospital, New York, for giving the high-
intensity treatments.

The results of the high-intensity (5400 r
per minute) irradiations are as follows:

T-. / n Total Per cent

Dosage (r)

survivors mutants

Control 527 0.2

15,750 657 14.3

22,500 274 24.8

31,500 772 31.5

6 3,ooo 32 53.3

126,000 51 78.5

It can be seen that the mutation rate con-
tinues to increase with increased dosage.
Moreover, the mutation rate in the high-
intensity experiments is approximately
linear, although it is appreciably higher
than in the low-intensity experiments. At
63,000 r the survival rate is about 2.5 per
cent and at 126,000 r about 0.01 per cent of
that of the control. At these dosages the
mutation rate continues to increase. There-
fore, there is no drop in the mutation rate
associated with a low survival rate, such
as was observed in the ultraviolet experi-
ments.

The results indicate that an increased
mutation rate may be associated with high
intensity. It is hoped to test whether this
is indeed the case or whether the difference
in results obtained from the treatments
given at Cold Spring Harbor and at Me-
morial Hospital is due to some other cause.

The Lindegrens' observation that crosses
between X-ray-induced mutants and a
normal standard line tend to be more
sterile than control crosses was confirmed
last year. Further investigation has shown
that such sterility is found in crosses in-
volving phenotypically normal cultures
. from treated spores as well as those involv-

ing visible mutants, but that the percentage
of sterile types is much higher in the
mutants. Since sterility is to a large extent
caused by chromosomal aberrations, our
observations indicate a correlation between
visible mutants and chromosome aberra-
tions. The percentage of sterile types is
greater at high than at low intensity, and
increases with dosage. The correlation be-
tween visible mutants and sterility appears
to rise with increases in dosage and in-
tensity; but further data are needed to test
this point. The correlation between visible
mutants and chromosomal aberrations is
in agreement with the apparent intensity
effect, since it has been shown in Trades-
cantia that high intensity increases the
number of aberrations.

It is planned to make further experi-
ments on the correlation between sterility
and visible mutants, and in particular to
obtain, if possible, the mutation rate for
mutants not associated with sterility. It
seems probable that the apparently simple
linear X-ray dosage curve is, in reality,
composed of two curves: one of mutants
associated with chromosomal aberrations,
the other of mutants independent of such
aberrations.

Neutron experiments. The results of the
neutron experiment on Drosophila by Dr.
Fano mentioned in Year Book No. 41 can
now be discussed, since cytological analysis
of the salivary-gland preparations has been
completed by Dr. Sutton. Out of 62 X
chromosomes that carried sex-linked lethals
induced by neutron treatment, 25 (i.e., 40
per cent) had. a rearrangement in the same
chromosomal region in which the lethal
was located. None of the lethals had a
readily detectable deficiency. The fre-
quency of association of lethals and rear-
rangements appears to be much higher in
neutron-treated than in any other material,
when the various special circumstances of
this and other experiments are considered.

Iaa CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

This finding is not unexpected, since there intensities. Extensive experimental and
is evidence to indicate that neutrons, as a theoretical investigations along this line
rule, produce fewer gene mutations and have not yet supplied crucial information
more (or at least not fewer) chromosomal on the course of recovery. While develop-
rearrangements than energetically similar ing a mathematical formulation of the
doses of X rays. effect of the time-intensity factor on X-
The demonstration that the proportion ray-induced chromosomal aberrations in
of lethals associated with rearrangements Tradescantia, Mr. L. D. Marinelli, of
can be as high as 40 per cent when the Memorial Hospital, concluded that frac-
total frequency of lethals is 6 per cent tionation experiments, consisting of two
increases the difficulty of interpreting an high-intensity irradiations separated by a
already difficult situation. There are two variable intermission, ought to be better
types of sex-linked lethal, both of which are suited than continuous irradiations to in-
detected by the C1B method; namely, gene vestigation of the time factor. Dr. Fano
mutations and chromosomal rearrange- joined the investigations at this point. Fur-
ments. It is generally assumed that the ther consideration indicated that Marinelli's
first of these is induced at a rate propor- suggestion has general significance. The
tional to the radiation dosage, and the course of recovery may be followed most
second at a rate approximately propor- easily in fractionation experiments, because
tional to the square of the dosage. How, radiation can be delivered in a short time
then, can the sum of the two components during which recovery is negligible, and
be actually proportional to the radiation recovery takes place during the inter-
dosage, especially when the quantitative mission without having its effect masked
contribution of the second component is or interfered with by continuing irradia-
not negligible? No satisfactory hypothesis tion. A method was developed showing
has yet been found to explain this dis- how the results of fractionation experi-
crepancy. ments should be combined to calculate

an index of recovery, and how special

Radiation Theory tests can ^ designed to determine the

The time-intensity factor. In many radio- complexity of the recovery process. Con-
biological (genetic and nongenetic) re- siderations of this type have led to a more
actions, the effect of a given dosage of comprehensive point of view with refer-
radiation depends on the "time-intensity ence to various radiobiological theories
factor"; that is, it is a direct function of previously proposed.

the intensity ("intensity effect"), and is Genetic action of X rays by means of
lower when the treatment is intermittent large ion clusters. It is widely believed
than when it is continuous, provided the that the absence of any wave-length effect
intensity remains the same ("fractionation in the genetic action of X rays proves that
effect"). This phenomenon has been the this action is produced by single ioniza-
object of considerable attention, inasmuch tions or by small ion clusters, such as com-
as it might furnish important clues to the monly occur along the paths of photo- or
process of recovery of the biological mate- Compton electrons in tissue. This belief,
rial from the action of radiation. The in- however, relies on the assumption that
tensity effects have been determined by large clusters of ionizations are mainly due
comparing the results of continuous irra- to the condensation of many small clusters
diations with constant dose and different occurring by chance at very short distances

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

145

from one another. This assumption is in-
correct, because a large cluster is more
likely to occur as a single unit, owing to
exceptionally close approach of the path to
one particular atomic electron. This argu-
ment has been used recently by Lea and
Catcheside in an attempt to explain the
quantitative data on the effects of various
radiations on Tradescantia chromosomes.
They calculated that clusters of approxi-
mately 20 ionizations ought to be most
effective in breaking chromosomes. Their
work, however, did not include a quanti-
tative evaluation of the frequency of oc-
currence of large ion clusters. An approxi-
mate evaluation has been provided by Dr.
Fano through an application of existing
theories of the impact of fast electrons
against atoms and molecules. He calcu-
lated that 1 r of X rays produces approxi-
mately o.i« clusters (of n or more ioniza-
tions) per cubic micron. This calculation
lends additional support to the theory
proposed by Lea and Catcheside.

Ionization yield of radiation energy. The
dosimetry of most radiobiological experi-
ments rests on the fact that the number
of ions produced by radiation in an air
chamber may be taken as an indirect meas-
ure of the number of ions produced and
of the total amount of energy spent by
radiation per unit volume in tissue. This
method depends largely upon the follow-
ing experimental result: Calling V the
amount of radiation energy absorbed by a
certain volume of a substance, and P the
number of ionizations produced within it,
the ratio z — V/P (that is, the average
energy spent per ion pair produced) is
generally of the order of magnitude of 30
electron-volts, whatever the ionizing radia-
tion used and the substance absorbing it.
In particular, the values of z found for
different substances show no general corre-
lation with the energy / actually required
to ionize one individual molecule of the

substance. For instance, z is slightly lower
for He than for H2, even though / is 50
per cent greater for He than for H 2 . Pre-
vious calculations of the physical action of
ionizing radiations do not account for this
fact, but on the contrary predict that z
should be approximately proportional to /.
Dr. Fano has given a qualitative explana-
tion of this disagreement. The average
energy z is always greater than /, because
a part of the radiation energy is spent for
other purposes than ionization. Most of
the energy thus "wasted" goes into excita-
tion of optical levels. In order to explain
how / may be especially large for a par-
ticular substance without bringing about a
correspondingly large value of c, one must
show that the "waste" of energy z — I is
especially small in that substance. This
end seems to be achieved through the
following findings : (a) Accurate informa-
tion available for the three characteristic
atoms H, He, and Li shows that their
aptitude for undergoing optical excitation,
rather than ionization, and hence the prob-
able "waste" of energy when radiation
acts upon them, is approximately in inverse
ratio to the value of /. (b) Qualitative
discussion of quantum mechanical proper-
ties of atoms and molecules indicates that
this correlation between the aptitude for
undergoing excitation and the value of /
probably has general significance, and thus
applies to most, if not all, substances, (c)
These quantum mechanical properties of
atoms and molecules have been implicitly
disregarded in previous calculations of the
action of ionizing radiations, because of
certain simplifications made in those cal-
culations; hence arose the disagreement
with experimental facts.

Chromosome Breakage and
Recombination

Breaks may be induced in the chromo-
somes of mature sperm of Drosophila by

146

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

exposing adult males to X radiation. The biological analysis has been carried out by
potential breaks so induced are not uti- Dr. Kaufmann; and Dr. Hollaender has
lized in the formation of new chromosomal supervised the treatment with ultraviolet
arrangements, such as inversions and re- and near infrared rays,
ciprocal translocations, until after the sperm As reported in Year Book No. 41, ex-
has entered the egg (see Year Book No. posure of X-rayed males for extended pe-
39). Since irradiated males may be kept riods of time to near infrared radiation
for several days before copulation, a con- results in an appreciable decrease in the
siderable period of time is available be- frequency of detectable chromosomal re-
tween irradiation and fertilization for arrangements as compared with the con-
efforts to alter experimentally the recom- trols. When, however, females were ex-
bination capacity of the broken ends of the posed to near infrared radiation for periods
sperm chromosomes. The induced rear- ranging from 72 to 216 hours after in-
rangements are detected by analysis of the semination by males that had been treated
salivary glands of the larval progeny of with 4000 r of X rays, there was a much
the irradiated fathers. The percentage of smaller decrease in break frequency with
glands showing rearrangements, and the increasing exposure. Further analysis of
nature of the rearrangements, were deter- data obtained following infrared treatment
mined in earlier experiments for several of X-rayed males suggests that reduction
X-ray dosage levels. For instance, at 4000 r in the number of detectable chromosomal
about 29 per cent of the glands reveal chro- breaks may not be attributable solely to
mosomal aberrations, and about 83 breaks "healing" or incapacitation of broken ends,
occur in every 100 treated sperms. Any but that prolonged exposure to the near
post-irradiation treatment that prevents the infrared rays may accelerate the rate at
broken ends from forming new combina- which germ cells that were immature and
tions should give appreciably lower values not affected by X-ray treatment are con-
than those of the X-ray controls, and any verted into mature sperm. In either case,
treatment that fosters recombination should the proportion of normal sperms trans-
produce either a greater proportion of al- ferred in copulation will be increased, and
tered sperms or more complex rearrange- the frequency of detectable rearrangements
ments. The first experiments along these found among the Fi salivary-gland chro-
lines, made by Dr. Kaufmann and Dr. mosomes will be correspondingly lowered.
Hollaender, were outlined in Year Book Other males were exposed to ultraviolet
No. 41. radiation of wave length 2537 A after
In continuation of this work, two types X-ray treatment of 4000 r. Only 10 males
of experiment were designed. Efforts were could be exposed simultaneously to the
made, first, to modify the potential breaks ultraviolet, so that small numbers of prog-
produced by X rays in the quiescent chro- eny were obtained in each experiment and
mosomes of the sperm by further treat- variability from experiment to experiment
ment of the adult males containing these was considerable. The over-all effect, ob-
sperms, and, second, to alter the capacity tained from an analysis of 289 pairs of
of broken ends to recombine by varying glands, was a slight reduction from the
the temperature during the period when 4000-r control value in the percentage of
the male pronucleus is being organized altered sperms (to 23 per cent), and a
and its chromosomes are presumably of- much greater decrease (to 58 per cent) in
fered opportunities for establishing new the frequency of breaks. This latter effect
combinations. In this work the extensive was brought about largely through elimi-

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

nation of the more complex rearrange-
ments. It has been suggested by C. P.
Swanson that ultraviolet radiation of wave
length 2537 A has a pronounced effect on
the matrix materials of the plant chromo-
some; and some such disturbance may
occur in Drosophila, although work with
various other wave lengths will be neces-
sary to check this hypothesis.

Efforts to affect the recombination prop-
erties of broken chromosome ends during
the time of organization of the male pro-
nucleus involved exposure of the insemi-
nated females to incubator temperatures
of either 18 ° or 28 ° C, or to the heating
effects of the .near infrared rays. The
complete data from these experiments have
not been assembled; but analysis of about
150 pairs of glands obtained after each
type of treatment shows that both the
near infrared and the 28 ° temperature
give percentages of altered sperms and
total breaks slightly higher than the con-
trols, whereas the frequency of breaks at
the 1 8° temperature is somewhat lower.
Since all cultures of flies were raised under
similar conditions following the period of
egg-laying, it would seem that the higher
temperatures facilitate those chromosome
movements that lead to the production of
contacts between the broken ends of the
chromosomes.

The discovery by Dr. Kaufmann, re-
ported in Year Book No. 41, of an ex-
ceedingly complex X-ray-induced chromo-
somal rearrangement involving at least 32
breaks has led to a revision of previous
ideas concerning the mechanism of induc-
tion of complex rearrangements in Dro-
sophila sperms. This mechanism is known
to involve two stages: in the first stage,
at the time of irradiation, sperm chromo-
somes are broken, actually or potentially;
but the recombination of broken fragments
to form a "rearranged" chromosomal com-
plement occurs as a second stage, at the
time of fertilization, when the male pro-

nucleus begins to open up in the egg. For
the sake of simplicity, it has heretofore
been assumed that, whereas the first stage
is characterized by the active influence of
radiation, recombination is substantially a
passive phenomenon; specifically, that the
rejoining of one or more pairs of broken
ends during recombination does not affect
the fate of other broken ends except by
reducing the number of broken ends avail-
able for further recombination.

It was pointed out by Dr. Fano at the
1941 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium that
the relative frequency of simple and com-
plex rearrangements cannot easily be recon-
ciled with this assumption. In his opinion,
Dr. Kaufmann's discovery now furnishes
additional and decisive grounds for dis-
carding the assumption and investigating
the implications of the existing evidence
on complex rearrangements. This investi-
gation cannot proceed through unequivocal
logical deductions, but the conclusions
reached indicate that breaks become more
readily available to take part in a rearrange-
ment after the rearrangement begins to
develop from other breaks. The simplest
possible mechanism that can be postulated
to explain this circumstance is the follow-
ing: A large number of potential breaks
is produced by the usual X-ray treatment;
each break has a chance of healing that is
originally large but that can be substan-
tially lessened by some mechanical per-
turbation (e.g., a pull along a chromosome)
arising after fertilization when a rearrange-
ment happens to be started by two other
breaks. The possibility that some of the
breaks involved in complex rearrangements
are not produced initially by radiation, but
arise as secondary effects due to recombi-
nation of other breaks, should also be con-
sidered, in view of the fact that the relative
frequency of simple and complex rear-
rangements changes little with increasing
radiation dosage.

148

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

MAIZE GENETICS

Barbara McClintock

Studies with Broken Chromosomes

For several years, the behavior of chro-
mosomes having a single broken end has
been investigated. In all cases, the original
break was induced at meiotic anaphases
following crossing over between the homo-
logues of chromosome 9, one of which is
structurally modified. The primary pur-
pose of this study was to determine the
behavior of the broken end in subsequent
nuclear generations, and this was fulfilled
in establishing the chromatid type of
breakage-fusion-bridge cycle in the game-
tophyte and endosperm tissues and the
chromosomal type of breakage-fusion-
bridge cycle in the sporophytic tissues.
From these studies, material was obtained
for other investigations, some of which
were mentioned in last year's report, and
which have been expanded during the
year. Several incidental observations aris-
ing from them will be mentioned.

To continue these studies, a method of
producing large numbers of functional
gametes each containing a chromosome
with a single, unsaturated broken end
was desired. This was accomplished by
partial elimination of the undesirable male
gametes through differential pollen-tube
growth which favored grains having a
chromosome with a broken end. Plants
that are heterozygous for a normal chro-
mosome 9 and a chromosome 9 with a
duplication of the short arm give rise to
gametes having either a normal chromo-
some 9, a duplication chromosome 9, or a
broken chromosome 9 (following a cross-
over involving the duplicated segment).
Although cytological observations indicate
that 18 per cent of the spores carry a broken
chromosome, only 3.6 per cent are recov-
ered from the pollen of these plants. Pre-
sumably because of chromosomal unbal-

ance, pollen with the duplication does not
compete well with pollen carrying a normal
chromosome 9. Consequently, the pollen
grain that mainly functions carries the
normal- chromosome 9. If, however, in
such plants, the normal chromosome 9
is replaced by a chromosome 9 with a
non-male-transmissible deficiency, only the
pollen grains with a duplication or a re-
cently broken chromosome can function.
Competitive pollen-tube growth now fa-
vors those grains which carry a broken
chromosome 9, because the chromosome 9
constitution in many of these grains is less
unbalanced than in those carrying the du-
plication chromosome. If a large amount
of pollen from such plants is placed on
silks, pollen grains carrying broken chro-
mosomes will function successfully in 75
to 90 per cent of the cases. This is a
tremendous increase over the previously
available 3.6 per cent. These figures are
based on tests of nearly 30,000 pollen
grains.

The chromatid type of breakage-fusion-
bridge cycle occurring in the gametophyte
divisions following a meiotic breakage of
chromosome 9 can result in gametes carry-
ing various degrees of deficiency and du-
plication of the short arm of chromosome
9. Kernels whose embryos have multiple
duplications of the short arm can be iden-
tified on a genetic basis. Therefore, many
individual kernels were isolated and the
plants arising from them examined. Com-
parisons of plants that are monosomic,
disomic, trisomic, tetrasomic, and penta-
somic for the full short arm of chromo-
some 9 show no striking changes in growth
or morphology that could be attributed to
chromosomal unbalance.

An unusual type of chromosomal trans-
location involving chromosome 9, men-

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

149

tioned briefly in last year's report, has con-
tinued to appear. All such translocations
were found in plants which had received a
recently broken chromosome 9 from one
parent. In all cases, only one translocated
chromosome was present. It was composed
of the long arm of chromosome 9 and a
single arm of another chromosome of the
complement, united at their centromere
regions. The short arm of chromosome 9
and the complementary arm of the second
chromosome were missing. The frequency
and complete similarity in all cases of this
unusual type of translocation suggest a
particular type of action on the part of the
chromosome 9 that is undergoing the
breakage-fusion-bridge cycle. This cycle
frequently produces a telocentric chromo-
some composed of the long arm of chro-
mosome 9. The hypothesis is suggested
that the newly produced terminal centro-
mere fuses with a centromere of any one of
the other chromosomes of the complement.
This configuration eventually results in the
elimination of one chromosome arm of the
tripartite complex.

In last year's report, the identification of
kernels that had received a chromosome
with a single broken end from each gamete
nucleus was described. Twenty such ker-
nels were sown, and the seedlings arising
from half of these showed that fusion had
occurred between the two broken ends
contributed by each gamete nucleus. In
the remaining 10 plants, no evidence of
such fusions was seen. To interpret more
adequately the subsequent behavior of
these two chromosomes, a larger sample
was desired. Through the improved
method of obtaining functional male
gametes whose nuclei contain a chromo-
some 9 with a single broken end, several
hundred kernels of the desired type were
readily obtained. Among 138 such kernels
selected for testing, 108 produced seedlings.
The embryos in the remaining 30 were

morphologically aberrant and were unable
to grow. Among the 108 viable plants
arising from these kernels, 72 gave evi-
dence of fusion between the broken ends
of the chromosomes 9 contributed by the
two gametes. No evidence of such fusion
was obtained from the remaining 36 plants.
This does not mean that no fusions had oc-
curred, for the subsequent behavior of
the dicentric chromosome arising from
such fusions could quickly nullify all evi-
dence of fusion in the later nuclear divi-
sions, which are the ones examined for
this evidence. The behavior of the dicen-
tric chromosome follows two main courses.
During nuclear division, the two centro-
meres of each dicentric chromatid may
pass to opposite poles in a spindle figure,
producing two contiguous chromatin
bridges stretched between the poles. When
rupture of these two bridges occurs dur-
ing late anaphase or early telophase, two
newly broken ends enter each sister telo-
phase nucleus. Fusion may then occur
between these broken ends, re-establishing
the dicentric chromosome condition and
the chromosomal type of breakage-fusion-
bridge cycle.

The second course that the dicentric
chromosome may follow results in absence
of fusion between the two broken ends in
the nuclei that arise following the forma-
tion of such anaphase bridges. These two
broken ends, which are observed in the
nuclei of later generations, are perma-
nently healed; for no subsequent fusions
occur. Observational evidence strongly
suggests that the healing process may be
related to the nuclear cycle; that is, if a
recently broken (unsaturated) end enters
a telophase nucleus and has no other un-
saturated end with which it may fuse, it
will "heal" and become saturated or in-
capable of fusion during the period from
telophase to the following prophase or dur-
ing the reproductive cycle of the chromo-

150

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

some. The evidence leading to such an
interpretation derives from the frequent
observation of sister nuclei that are con-
nected by a single chromatin bridge dur-
ing late telophase and interphase. This
would result if only one of the two con-
tiguous bridges were ruptured during ana-
phase or early telophase. In that case, a
single bridge would connect the two sister
nuclei, and only one unsaturated broken
end would have entered each nucleus. It
is known that in sporophytic tissues such
a single broken end will heal. If the single
chromatin bridge connecting the two
nuclei is not broken until the following
prophase, the single unsaturated broken
end within each nucleus may have healed.
The second broken end, which will enter
each nucleus following eventual rupture of
the hitherto persistent bridge, may then
have no unsaturated end with which it
may fuse. It, in turn, will heal. The di-
centric chromosome cycle is terminated
and each nucleus has two broken ends,
which, however, are saturated and incapa-
ble of further fusions. The nature of the
healing process is not known; if, as this
evidence suggests, it is related to the
chromosome division cycle, experiments
should be focused on this period.

Tests of the Amount of Crossing Over

That May Occur within Small

Segments of a Chromosome

Previous investigations have placed the
locus of the mutant yg-2 within the ter-
minal chromomere of the short arm of
chromosome 9. Rhoades had determined
that the mutant Dt is located 7 crossover
units beyond yg-2. This suggests that a
relatively high percentage of crossing over
must occur within a minute distal segment
of the chromosome. To obtain some evi-
dence on the amounts of crossing over that
may occur within specific small regions,

the following method was used. Plants
were made heterozygous for terminal defi-
ciencies of the short arm of chromosome 9.
The extent of the deficiencies ranged from
loss of the terminal chromomere to loss of
four chromomeres. The normal chromo-
some 9 carried the recessive mutant c, and
the deficient chromosome the allele C (C,
colored aleurone; c, colorless aleurone).
C is located within the fifth or sixth
chromomere from the end of the short arm
of chromosome 9. When pollen of such
plants is placed on silks of plants homozy-
gous for c, only the pollen grains carrying
the normal chromosome 9 will function.
Therefore, any C kernel that appears is the
result of a crossover in the segment be-
tween the locus of C and the end of the
deficient chromosome. The proportion of
C to c kernels is thus a direct measure of
the amount of crossing over that occurs
within this segment. As the deficiency be-
comes shorter, the proportion of C to c
kernels increases. The difference may be
ascribed to the increasing length of the seg-
ment in which crossing over may occur.
Since the increase of each segment is
known, the amount of crossing over as-
cribable to this increment may be deter-
mined. The 11 deficiencies tested have
been placed in five groups of descending
order of length. Cytological observations
of the exact position of a break that gives
rise to a terminal deficiency are extremely
difficult, because of the minute size of the
chromomeres. Any one deficiency, placed
in a particular size group, may be plus or
minus a small part of a chromomere.

The table on page 151 shows that as
the segment in which crossing over is
measured becomes progressively longer,
marked increases in crossing over occur.
Toward the end of the series, an increase
of half a chromomere may increase the
crossover units by 10. Thus, if yg-2 is lo-

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

151

cated toward the middle of the terminal
chromomere, the location of Dt seven cross-

Deficiency

Per cent

crossing

over

No. of

kernels

examined

Deficient for 4 chromomeres:
df 1297A-2

0.016

0.052

0.52

0.72

0.94

1.25

3.07

8.33

17.06
21.1

6130

df 1278A-4

1923

df 1501A

5748

df 1559B-2

1333

df 1463-2

9743

Deficient for 3 chromomeres:
df 1265

5830

Deficient for 2 chromomeres:
df 1533A

8791

Deficient for \j4 chromomeres:
df 1507

4566

Deficient for 1 chromomere:
df 1509

3826

df 1512D-2

1639

over units beyond yg-2 is not necessarily
cytologically inconsistent. Since the nor-
mal amount of crossing over between C and
yg-2 is only 19 per cent, it is highly probable
that crossing over toward the tip of this
arm is considerably more frequent per unit
physical length than in other parts of the
arm.

Deficiency Mutations: Progressive

Deficiency as a Cause of

Allelic Series

During the past year, major emphasis
has been placed on expanding the studies
of mutations associated with small ter-
minal deficiencies of the short arm of
chromosome 9. All such deficiencies origi-
nate from chromosomes that are broken
during meiosis, as was explained earlier in
this report. The short arm of the normal
chromosome 9 terminates in a knob. A
relatively thin chromatic thread connects
this knob with the first distinct chromo-
mere of the short arm. If a break occurs
adjacent to the distal part of this first
chromomere, a chromosome 9 deficient for

the "stalk" of the knob results. Gametes
having this deficiency are completely func-
tional. Embryos homozygous for this de-
ficiency are normal; but the seedlings,
although normal in growth rate and
morphology, are pale yellow and incapable
of continued growth because of the defec-
tive chlorophyll condition. Because newly
produced broken chromosomes 9 can be
obtained in large numbers, this deficiency
mutant has been produced repeatedly and
independently in unrelated strains when-
ever the short arm of chromosome 9 is sub-
jected to breakage, regardless of the method
that produces this breakage. Seven unre-
lated and independently produced defi-
ciency pale-yellow mutants have been
selected for intensive study. When the
stalk of the knob and approximately half
of the terminal chromomere of the short
arm of chromosome 9 is removed during
breakage, the male and female gametes
containing this deficient chromosome are
functional. In the homozygous condition,
this deficiency produces not pale-yellow
but white seedlings. These seedlings are
dwarfed, although their general morpho-
logical development appears to be normal.
As with the pale-yellow mutants, the white-
seedling mutants have occurred repeatedly
in the progeny of independently produced
broken chromosomes. Six of these mutants
have been isolated for intensive study.

The allelic relations of all these mutants
are being tested. Of the 21 possible combi-
nations of the 7 pale-yellow mutants, 13
have been tested. Complete allelomorphism
has been observed with all 13. Although
tests of all individual combinations have
not been completed, the types of combina-
tion that have been tested indicate complete
allelism of all 7 mutants. These tests indi-
cate that all pale-yellow deficiency mutants
are similar in their character expression.
Combinations to test the allelic relations of
the white mutants have been made, but the

152

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

seedling tests have been completed on only
3 of the 15 possible combinations. In these
3 cases white seedlings appeared, indicating
the allelic nature of the whites. The pale-
yellow mutants have been combined with
the white mutants. Of the 42 possible com-
binations, 14 have been tested. All 14 com-
binations gave rise to pale-yellow seedlings
identical in appearance with the homozy-
gous pale-yellow mutant type. The com-
binations so far tested have established this
relationship for 5 of the 6 white mutants.
It may be concluded, therefore, that the
deficiency pale-yellow mutants are com-
pletely dominant to the deficiency white
mutants.

Previous investigations had suggested
that the well known and frequently used
recessive mutant yg-2 (yellow-green plants)
has its locus within the terminal chromo-
mere of the short arm of chromosome 9.
To determine the relation between yg-2
and these deficiency mutants, crosses have
been made with all 13 deficiency mutants.
Combinations of 6 of the 7 pale-yellow
mutants with yg-2 have been tested. In all
6 cases, only normal green seedlings were
produced. The deficiency pale-yellow mu-
tant and yg-2 are not allelic. Combinations
of the deficiency white mutants with yg-2
gave entirely different results. Although
only 3 of the 6 combinations have been
tested, all 3 combinations gave rise to yg-2
plants. This indicates the allelic relations
of the deficiency white mutants and yg-2.
Yellow-green-2 is dominant over deficiency
white.

The combined results throw an interest-
ing light on the nature of one form of
allelism which would be puzzling to in-
terpret if the cytology were not known.
The cytological analysis allows a logical
interpretation to be made. The allelic

relationships may be represented by two
series of descending order of dominance:

1 . Normal green — > pale-yellow — > white

2. Normal green —> yg-2 — > white

Although the two series have a mutant in
common, pale-yellow X yg-2 gives only
normal green plants.

The interpretation of progressive defi-
ciency will explain these results completely.
Normal green plants have an unmodified
chromosome 9, carrying Yg-2. This chro-
mosome will cover any deficiency in a
homologue and likewise the recessive mu-
tant yg-2. The deficiency which produces
pale-yellow is short and does not include
the locus of Yg-2. Therefore, the chromo-
some carrying yg-2 covers the pale-yellow
deficiency, whereas the deficient pale-yel-
low chromosome carries the dominant
allele of yg-2. Thus only normal green
plants result from this combination. It is
cytologically obvious that the chromosomes
9 producing the white mutants have a
longer deficiency than those producing
the pale-yellow mutants. If it is assumed
that the deficiency producing the white
mutants includes the locus of Yg-2, the
removal of this locus would allow yg-2 to
be expressed when the yg-2 chromosome
is combined with the deficient chromo-
somes 9 producing the white mutants.
Only yg-2 will appear, for the chromo-
some carrying yg-2 will cover the defi-
ciency present in the chromosome pro-
ducing the white mutant. Progressive
deficiency, therefore, will completely ex-
plain the allelic relations which these
mutants show with each other and with

Because newly broken chromosomes 9
give rise to these same mutants over and
over again, studies are now in progress to
determine the "mutation" rates.

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

153

POLYPLOIDY INVESTIGATIONS

H. E. Warmke and Harriet Davidson

The work of this laboratory continues to
be devoted largely to projects related to the
war effort. These for the most part are
practical and immediate in nature and
represent work which, because of our facili-
ties and training, we are especially qualified
to undertake. They have been initiated at
the suggestion of the Department of Agri-
culture, Bureau of Plant Industry, and
carried on with the active cooperation of
that Bureau.

Russian Dandelion

Our original investigation on this species,
concerning cytology and breeding be-
havior, was completed and published dur-
ing the year. In addition to the studies
reported last year, it has been found that
fertilization is extremely rapid, occurring
some 30 minutes after pollination, and that
it follows the normal sexual pattern, one
male nucleus uniting with the egg and one
with the primary endosperm. Chromo-
some counts of 2/2 = 16 in the developing
embryo and 3/2 = 24 in the dividing endo-
sperm cells verify the reality of the entire
sexual process.

Studies on self-sterility were continued,
and have revealed a high degree of "end-
season fertility." Many of the greenhouse
plants, which were protected from insects
and failed to set selfed seed during the
spring and summer, set abundant seed in
November and December.

Distribution of latex in the root. During
the year new studies on the Russian dande-
lion were undertaken at the request of the
Department of Agriculture. These relate
to the anatomy of the root, and were
planned as an aid in sampling roots for
comparative rubber analysis. In making
rubber analyses in the various selection
and breeding programs being carried on

throughout the country, it is important to
know whether the part of the root used in
sampling is of any consequence, and if so
which part should be used. In the past,
small samples of 100 to 300 mg. in weight
have been used, and these often have not
been chosen with particular care as to
position.

A technique was developed in this
laboratory, using osmic acid as a fixing
and staining agent, by which the rubber-
containing latex vessels could be sharply
differentiated from the parenchyma cells
in root sections, and the whole preserved
in permanent mounts. Sections prepared
in this manner and taken at half-inch in-
tervals between the crown and tip of the
root were projected on paper; and with a
planimeter the total latex area and per-
centage of latex in each section were calcu-
lated. The graph shown in figure 2 gives
average latex percentages for different parts
of the roots of 12 plants studied in this way.

In all cases there is a definite and regular
increase in latex percentage with increase
in distance from the crown. In many in-
stances the variation in latex content at
different levels of a single root exceeds the
variation between plants. In seeking real
differences between plants for breeding
purposes, therefore, the part of the root
used in sampling is obviously of the great-
est importance. These data have been
made available to the Department of Agri-
culture, together with a recommendation
that larger samples, covering most of the
length of the root, be used in chemical
analyses.

Polyploidy and rubber content. Our
studies on experimental polyploidy in the
dandelion, which had just begun at this
time last year, are progressing satisfactorily.
Seeds have been obtained from crosses be-

i54

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

tween colchicine-treated plants, and from
these a large number of first-generation
allopolyploids, including both tetraploids
and triploids, have been grown. The tetra-
ploids are strikingly more robust than the
diploids from which they were derived:

tance, because among the many reported
natural polyploid species within the genus
(triploid, tetraploid, and pentaploid), sex-
ual reproduction has been replaced by a
type of apomictic development, in which
an unreduced egg starts development with-

'5285

0123456789
DISTANCE BELOW CROWN

Fig. 2. The relation of position to latex percentage in 12 roots of the Russian dandelion as
calculated from area measurements of sections. Solid lines indicate greenhouse plants, and broken
lines indicate field plants.

leaves are thicker, greener, and broader,
and thus present more leaf area for photo-
synthetic activity. The flowers and flower
stalks show a corresponding increase in
dimensions; pollen is good, and the set of
seed is high. The normal self-sterility and
sexual behavior of the diploid, however,
apparently are retained in the experimental
tetraploids. This is of considerable impor-

out the stimulus of fertilization. Among
the experimental plants, however, even the
I triploids, which are largely sterile because
of irregular chromosome distribution, fail
to develop apomictic reproduction.

Samples of 20 diploid and 20 tetraploid
roots, of the same age and grown under
similar conditions, have shown the tetra-
ploid to be significantly heavier. The fresh

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

155

tetraploid roots weighed on an average
10.64 ±0.85 grams, and the fresh diploid
roots 8.17 ±0.70 grams. Since the root is
the rubber-bearing organ, this increase in
weight, if borne out by larger samplings
and if not accompanied by a corresponding
decrease in rubber concentration, may be
of importance in the commercial develop-
ment of the species. The diploid and tetra-
ploid root samples have been dried and
sent to the rubber-testing laboratory at
Beltsville, Maryland, for accurate compara-
tive rubber determinations.

Hemp

Marihuana studies. Our efforts to pro-
duce a fiber hemp with low marihuana
content are continuing. It has been possible
to accelerate the program by growing a
second generation in the greenhouse in
winter in addition to the regular summer
crop. The previous assay method, utilizing
Fundulus, which is available only in the
summer, was adapted to the use of the
water flea, Daphnia, which can be grown
in the laboratory the year round. Daphnia
has other advantages: (1) parthenogenetic
reproduction provides genetically uniform
offspring, (2) laboratory culture makes it
possible to control accurately the ages of
test animals, and (3) their smaller size
makes testing of smaller leaf samples prac-
ticable. These studies using Daphnia in
the assay of marihuana have been carried
on in cooperation with Dr. A. M. Banta, of
Brown University.

In Year Book No. 41 wide differences in
the marihuana content of individual plants
were noted; but whether these were largely
the result of genetic or of environmental
variables could not be stated. The summer
tests, which have just been completed, give
evidence that marihuana content is influ-
enced by heredity.

Ten pedigrees of plants were grown

from parents selected and intercrossed be-
cause of low marihuana content, and ten
pedigrees were grown from parents se-
lected because of high marihuana content.
The results of drug determinations on
these two groups of pedigrees are pre-
sented graphically in figure 3. The 147
plants tested from high-marihuana parents
killed an average of 5.82 ±0.14 animals;
235 plants from among those having low-
marihuana parents killed an average of
only 4.99 ±0.12 animals. This is a signifi-
cant difference after only one generation of
selection, and further divergence seems
likely with continued breeding.

Of equal importance from a practical
point of view is the fact that among the
offspring of low-content parents there were
22 plants that killed no more than 2 ani-
mals, whereas among the offspring of high-
content parents only 2 such plants were
found; correspondingly, the high pedi-
grees produced 9 plants that killed 9 or
more animals, whereas the low pedigrees
produced no individuals so potent as this.
These extreme low and high types have
been isolated and intercrossed, and their
offspring will be tested during the coming
winter.

The fact that the marihuana content is
higher in plants from the same pedigree
when grown in the greenhouse than when
grown out pf doors indicates that environ-
mental factors also play a role in marihuana
synthesis and storage.

Polyploidy in hemp. Reports have been
received from the Department of Agri-
culture on comparative fiber yields of the
original diploid and tetraploid strains sub-
mitted by this laboratory. These show no
significant superiority of the tetraploid over
the diploid. It seems, however, that suffi-
cient consideration was not given, when
plantings were made, to the greater weight
of the tetraploid seed. As a result, tetra-
ploid test plots had fewer plants per square

156

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

foot than diploid plots, and may therefore
have been placed at a disadvantage in yield
comparisons. For this reason, it is planned
to submit more samples of diploid and
tetraploid seed for further yield tests. In
addition to our original strain, we now
have three other tetraploid stocks, which
have been derived from superior fiber
stocks furnished us by the Department of
Agriculture.

diploid offspring from such crosses killed
an average of 5.53 ±0.27 animals; 10 trip-
loid offspring killed an average of 6.20 ±
0.90 animals; and 69 tetraploid offspring
killed an average of 7.57 ±0.31 animals.
These results, obtained with substantially
improved techniques, confirm the greater
marihuana potency of the polyploid types
over the diploids, reported in a preliminary
fashion last year.

30-

_l
Q-

U.
O

a:
w 10

3.0

6.4

<*,.

m°

1.4

23.8

22.1

10.6

V/.

4.7

17.0

16.2

21.1

20.0

n.9

VTTV

12.2

13.6

9.8

4.8

1.4
£JZL

3 4 5 6 7

NUMBER OF ANIMALS KILLED

Fig. 3. The effect of heredity on marihuana content in hemp, as revealed after one generation
of selection. Crosshatched bars show distribution of marihuana potencies among 235 offspring of
selected low-content parents; open bars show marihuana potencies of 147 offspring of selected high-
content parents. Plants that kill a small number of animals have low potency; those that kill a
large number of animals have high potency.

Tests begun last year on the relative
marihuana content of polyploids of differ-
ent degree have been continued. Genie
differences have been reduced to a mini-
mum by testing diploid, triploid, and tetra-
ploid plants from the same male and
female parents. Such stocks were secured
by intercrossing colchicine-treated plants in
pairs. Some of these pairs proved to have
mixed in and 472 germinal tissues, and
produced the three polyploid types. Ninety

Polyploidy and Pore Number in
Microspores

In the routine examination of the large
numbers of tetraploid forms produced in
this laboratory, it has been observed that
pollen of tetraploids tends to have a larger
number of germ pores than the pollen of
corresponding diploids, the increase from
three to four germ pores being especially
common. A few four-pored grains are
normally found in the pollen of diploids,

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

157

and it has been the opinion of various
workers that this increase in pore number
results from a different arrangement of
the four microspores within the wall of
the microspore mother cell. It has been
postulated that the three germ pores result
from a tetrahedral arrangement of the
spores in the tetrad, and that the four-
pored condition results from a square or
rhomboidal arrangement.

It seemed of interest — in this polyploid
material, where the diploid may have as
little as 1 per cent four-pored pollen and
the tetraploid as high as 90 per cent, as in

Nicotiana langsdorffii — to observe the ar-
rangement of microspores in the tetrad,
and to determine whether the increase
in pore number is accompanied by a corre-
sponding increase in the number of square
and rhomboidal tetrad arrangements. Pre-
liminary studies by Dr. Kaeiser indicate
that there is not sufficient difference in the
arrangement of spores within the tetrads
of the tetraploid to account for more than
a fraction of the four-pored pollen grains
observed, and suggest that factors other
than tetrad arrangement are of importance
in determining germ-pore number.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND HUMAN GENETICS

Morris Steggerda and Hilda H. Wheeler

Anthropometry

Navajo Indians: adults. Measurements
of body dimensions were taken on 150
adult male and 100 adult female Navajo
Indians living on the reservation in Arizona
and New Mexico. These are compared
with measurements on Maya Indians of
Yucatan, Negroes of the British West In-
dies, and Dutch whites of Holland, Michi-
gan, all groups on which Dr. Steggerda
has made similar studies. The average age
of the Navajos studied is 24.5 years for the
males, with a range from 18 to 60, and 22
years for the females, who ranged from 18
to 50. Most of the individuals were young
adults, but all had attained full stature.
The results are given in the accompanying
table.

The means for stature are close to a
weighted average for Athapascans in gen-
eral (a linguistic group to which the Nava-
jos belong; see Steggerda, Carnegie Insti-
tution of Washington Publication 434),
namely, 169.7 cm. and 156.6 cm. for males
and females respectively. Hrdlicka, in his
study on Indians of the southwestern
United States and northern Mexico, gives

Means and probable errors for six dimensions
of adult Navajo Indians

Dimension

Males

Females

Stature (cm.)

168.04±0.28

155.50±0.31

Weight (kg.)

59.51±0.39

53.66±0.42

Relative chest

girth (%)

53.04±0.16

53.24±0.20

Relative sitting

height (%)

52.75±0.06

53.31±0.08

Relative span (%) .

103.98±0.13

102.85±0.13

Cephalic index (%)

85.31±0.22

85.32±0.32

means of 168.6 and 156.8 for a small num-
ber of Apaches and Navajos grouped to-
gether. Navajos are not among the tallest
Indians (170— 174.9 cm -) ( see Pub. 434),
but rather in the next lower category,
165— 169.9 cm. The Jamaica Negroes aver-
aged 170.6 cm., and the Dutch whites of
Michigan 173.6 cm. The female-male index
for Navajo stature is 0.925; this index for
Negroes and whites is 0.928 and 0.935
respectively.

Relatively few studies have been made
of the weights of racial groups, but those
that are available show the Navajos to be
rather light in weight. For example, the

i58

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Choctaws as described by Collins are only
2 cm. taller than the Navajos but weigh
8 kg. more. The Jamaica Negroes, who
average 2.6 cm. more than the Navajos in
height and are well known to be slender,
average 6.5 kg. more in weight.

The Navajos are of a medium body
build, similar to that of the Dutch whites
in Michigan; both these groups have a
relative chest girth of 53 per cent, as com-
pared with the 49.9 per cent found for
Negroes. The short Maya Indian males
have a relative, chest girth of 56 per cent.
The sitting height of the Navajo males is
52.8 per cent of their stature, of Maya
males 53.0 per cent, of Negro males 51.5
per cent, and of Dutch white males 52.3
per cent. The arms of the Navajo males
are relatively long, with a mean relative
span of 104 per cent; the span for Dutch
whites is 103 per cent, for the Maya 104.6
per cent, and for the Negroes 106 per cent.
The Navajo heads are brachycephalic, with
an index of 85 per cent for the males; this
is equal to that of the Maya males; the
Dutch whites have an average index of
79 per cent and the Jamaica Negroes
77 per cent.

Navajo Indians: children. Individual
curves of growth for approximately 75
Navajo females and 100 Navajo males have
been plotted over a 10-year period. Devia-
tions of these individuals from the average
curves of growth based on hundreds of
Navajos are being made. The rates of
growth at various stages in their develop-
ment are also being considered, and com-
parisons are being made with the growth
and development of the three other racial
groups studied by the author.

A detailed study of Navajo anthropom-
etry is being made, considering 60 or more
body dimensions of both adults and chil-
dren, with comparisons of all available
data.

Anthropology

Maya Indians: milpa experiment. The
Maya Indians of Yucatan plant corn in
the same field for only two or, at the most,
three years in succession, then abandon
that field and choose a new one for plant-
ing. The yield for each successive year in
any field is smaller than for the preceding
year. The . reasons advanced to explain
this decrease are: weed competition and
the encroachment of grass, soil deteriora-
tion, and insect pests. The data collected
by Steggerda over a 10-year period in Yuca-
tan throw light on each one of these
factors.

In January 1933, 15 mecates (1 mecate =
400 sq. m.) were selected for corn planting.
The center mecate, number 8, was used
as the experimental plot, and records were
kept of its yield for each year. The entire
15 mecates were planted in corn, the 14
mecates surrounding mecate 8 serving as
a possible protection against insects, birds,
and mammals, which are believed to work
in from the surrounding forests. Weeding
was done at first by the Maya method
alone, which consists of cutting ofr the
weeds with a machete. The first two years,
the field was weeded once each year; the
next two years, it was necessary to weed
twice each season. During these first four
years of production, the yield of shelled
corn from mecate 8 showed a progressive
decline, as follows: 32, 28, 16, and 7 kg.
Because of this decrease it was decided to
weed mecate 8 more thoroughly in 1937,
by pulling up the weeds instead of cutting
them off. Beginning with this fifth year,
the 7 mecates south and east of number 8
were kept relatively clear of weeds by pull-
ing them out, and the 7 mecates to the
north and west were weeded by the Maya
method. From 1937 to 1942 the yields were
recorded for all 15 mecates.

The records indicate that the yield of

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

159

mecate 8 fluctuated greatly. It may be Department of Agriculture and the Uni-
significant that in the first year after the versity of Illinois show nitrate and phos-
improved weeding method was introduced phate deficiencies which would definitely
the yield was greater than it was in 1933. limit production. The Maya Indians do
In the following year (1938), however, not apply fertilizer to their crops, although
the yield was again decreased. It rose the ashes resulting from the burning of
slightly in 1939; and, owing chiefly to a felled trees and cleared underbrush take
plague of grasshoppers, it fell to practically its place to some extent. The fact, how-
nothing in 1940. In 1941 the entire field ever, that no significant difference was
had to be abandoned because of a grass- found in the soil chemistry of samples from
hopper plague. In 1942 the yield was the continually cultivated fields and from
slightly less than for 1938. uncultivated plots indicates that soil de-

The yields for the 14 mecates surround- terioration may be discounted as a factor

ing plot 8 during the years 1937-1942 in crop decline. Insects, no doubt, cause a

show similar fluctuations. The fact that in considerable decrease in yield, since corn

1937 and 1938 the 7 western mecates yielded borers and leaf-cutting ants increase in

more corn than the 7 eastern ones, even numbers as a cornfield gets progressively

though they were weeded by the more older.

primitive and less efficient method, may Obviously it is easier for the Indians to

be due to better drainage or other environ- move their cornfields to a new location

mental factors. In 1939 and 1940, however, every two or three years than to combat

the thoroughly weeded mecates 1 to 7 pro- weeds and insects in the old one. Since

duced slightly more than mecates 9 to 15. their present-day agricultural methods seem

A record of the time and money expended to be the same as those used in ancient

on the weeding of the fields shows that times, the various factors discussed above

both increased as the experiment was may help explain why the ancient Maya

prolonged. abandoned their sites and migrated to new

In March 1941 a detailed survey was areas,

made of each mecate to show the amount "Enciclopedia yucateca." During the year

and kinds of grass present. Samples of the a 30-page report was written on the topic

grasses found were identified by Dr. P. C. "Physical and physiological characteristics

Standley, of the Field Museum in Chicago, of the Maya Indians of Yucatan, Mexico."

and include witch grass (Panicum) , crab This was done at the request of Dr. Carlos

grass (Digitaria), millet grass and foxtail A. Echanove, who has been put in charge

(Setaria), and the common sandbur (Cen- of the compilation and publication of the

chrus). During the first few years grasses "Encyclopedia of Yucatan" by the Gov-

were not present, but as the field continued ernor of the State. The report prepared

in production it was gradually taken over for this publication includes the anthro-

by grass; and now after 10 years several pometry of Maya children and adults, and

of the mecates are completely covered morphological and physiological observa-

with a heavy stand of grass. This cannot tions such as eye color, hair color and

be controlled by the Maya, because it is form, blood pressure, blood groups, dental

impossible to use modern farming tools caries, and tooth-eruption time.

on account of the shallowness of the soil South American Indians. In 1940 Steg-

and the abundance of rocks. gerda began a survey of the anthropometry

Analyses of Yucatan soils by the U. S. and physical features of the South Ameri-

i6o

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

can Indians as recorded in the literature,
for a forthcoming Handbook to be pub-
lished by the Smithsonian Institution. The
work has been concluded and summarized
in three separate articles : "Anthropometry
of South American Indians"; "Pigmenta-
tion and hair of South American Indians";
and "Mestizos of South America." A total
of about 200 books on the anthropology
of South American Indians has been re-
viewed, and information covering the
physical characteristics and body measure-
ments of 90 different tribes has been ob-
tained. Abstracts of these books and

pamphlets, together with a complete list
of anthropological papers on South Ameri-
can Indians, will form a separate publica-
tion. Though various writers have studied
these Indians from the ethnological point
of view, relatively few have carried out
anthropometrical investigations. The data
collected have been reproduced in tables,
grouping the tribes according to regional
areas and also according to height classes.
Contour maps have been prepared to show
graphically the distribution of the stature
groups, and a similar map shows the dis-
tribution of cephalic index.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bates, R. W. See Lahr, E. L.

Brehme, K. S., and M. Demerec. A survey of
Malpighian tube color in the eye color mu-
tants of Drosophila melanogaster. Growth,
vol. 6, pp. 351-355 (1942).

Demerec, M. See Brehme, K. S.; Kaufmann,
B. P.; Zamenhof, S.

Fano, U. On the interpretation of radiation
experiments in genetics. Quart. Rev. Biol.,
vol. 17, pp. 244-252 (1942).

Neutron-induced lethals in Drosophila.

(Abstract) Genetics, vol. 28, p. 74 (1943).

Mechanism of induction of gross chro-
mosomal rearrangements in Drosophila
sperms. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 29, pp.
12-18 (1943).

Ionization yield of radiation energy.

(Abstract) Phys. Rev., vol. 63, p. 222 (1943).

Production of ion clusters by X-rays. Na-
ture, vol. 151, p. 698 (1943).

and L. D. Marinelli. Note on the time-

intensity factor in radiobiology. Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci., vol. 29, pp. 59-66 (1943).
Hollander, W. F. A possible case of directed
mutation in the pigeon. (Abstract) Genetics,
vol. 28, pp. 76-77 (1942).

See Riddle, O.

Kaufmann, B. P. An exceedingly complex
chromosomal rearrangement. (Abstract)
Genetics, vol. 28, p. 79 (1943).

A complex induced rearrangement of

Drosophila chromosomes and its bearing on
the problem of chromosome rearrangement.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 29, pp. 8-18
(i943)-

and M. Demerec. Utilization of sperm

by the female Drosophila melanogaster.
Amer. Naturalist, vol. 76, pp. 445—469
(1942).

Korsch, B. See Steggerda, M.

Laanes, T. See MacDowell, E. C.

Lahr, E. L., R. W. Bates, and O. Riddle. Non-
specific results obtained with the micro-
method for assay of prolactin. Endocri-
nology, vol. 32, pp. 251-259 (1943).

McClintock, B. The fusion of broken ends
of chromosomes following nuclear fusion.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 28, pp. 458-463
(1942).

MacDowell, E. C., J. S. Potter, T. Laanes,
and E. N. Ward. The manifold effects of
the screw tail mouse mutation. Jour. Hered.,
vol. 33, pp. 439-449 (1942).

Marinelli, L. D. See Fano, U.

Marvin, H. N., and G. C. Smith. Technique
for thyroidectomy in the pigeon and the
early effect of thyroid removal on heat
production. Endocrinology, vol. 32, pp. 87-

9i ( r 943)-
Miller, R. A. Effects of anterior pituitary prepa-
rations and insulin on islet cells of the pigeon
pancreas. Endocrinology, vol. 31, pp. 535-

544 (i94 2 )-

and O. Riddle. The cytology of the

pigeon adrenal cortex in experimentally in-
duced atrophy and hyperactivity. Amer.
Jour. Anat., vol. 71, pp. 311-335 (1942).

Effects of adrenal cortical hor-
mones alone and in combination with pro-
lactin on body and visceral weights in hypo-

DEPARTMENT OF GENETICS

161

physectomized pigeons. (Abstract) Anat.
Rec, vol. 84, p. 40 (1942).
Ability of adrenal cortical hor-
mones, prolactin and thyroxin to maintain
weight of body and viscera of hypophysec-
tomized pigeons. Endocrinology, vol. 32,

pp. 463-474 (i943)-

Effects of prolactin and cortical

hormones on body weight and food intake
of adrenalectomized pigeons. Proc. Soc. Ex-
per. Biol, and Med., vol. 52, pp. 231-233

(i943)-
Potter, J. S. See MacDowell, E. C.

Riddle, O. Cyclic changes in blood calcium and

phosphorus in relation to egg laying and

estrogen production. Endocrinology, vol. 31,

pp. 498-506 (1942).

General relationships of hormones to

growth and development. Cold Spring Har-
bor Symp. Quant. Biol., vol. 10, pp. 7-14
(1942).

The preparation of high school science

teachers. Amer. Biol. Teacher, vol. 5, pp.

63-65 (1942).

Hormone therapy viewed by the research

physiologist. Proc. Amer. Pharmaceut. Man-
ufacturers' Assoc, pp. 82-89 ( r 94 2 )-

and W. F. Hollander. The inheritance

of "scraggly" plumage and of ataxia in the
pigeon. Jour. Hered., vol. 34, pp. 167-172

(i943)-

See Lahr, E. L.; Miller, R. A.

Seibert, H. C. See Steggerda, M.
Smith, G. C. See Marvin, H. N.
Steggerda, M. Significance of racial factors in
physical measurements of normal and de-

fective children. Amer. Jour. Ment. Defi-
ciency, vol. 46, no. 4 (1942).

— Anthropometry of the living. A study
on checking of techniques. Anthropol.
Briefs No. 2, Amer. Assoc. Phys. Anthropolo-
gists, pp. 7-15 (1942).

— Body measurements on 100 Negro males
from Tuskegee Institute. Res. Quart., vol.
13, pp. 275-279 (1942).

— Stature of South American Indians
Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol., vol. 1, pp
5-20 (1943).

— and B. Korsch. Remedies for diseases as
prescribed by Maya Indian herb-doctors
Bull. Hist. Med., vol. 13, pp. 54-82 (1943)

— and H. C. Seibert. The size and shape
of human head hair along its shaft. Jour.
Hered., vol. 33, pp. 302-304 (1942).

— and G. Wolff. Female-male index of

body build in Negroes and whites: an in-
terpretation of anatomical sex differences.
Human Biol., vol. 15, pp. 127-152 (1943).

Ward, E. N. See MacDowell, E. C.

Warmke, H. E. The cytology and breeding
behavior of the Russian dandelion, Taraxa-
cum kokjsaghyz. (Abstract) Amer. Jour.
Bot., suppl. to vol. 29, p. 19s (1942).

Microsporogenesis, fertilization, and

early embryology of Taraxacum \o\-saghyz.
Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol. 70, pp. 164-173

(i943)-
Wolff, G. See Steggerda, M.
Zamenhof, S., and M. Demerec. Heavy water

and mutations. (Abstract) Genetics, vol. 28,

p. 96 (1943).

NUTRITION LABORATORY

Boston, Massachusetts
THORNE M. CARPENTER, Director

The activities of the Nutrition Labora- Root, of the New England Deaconess

tory during the year have been restricted Hospital. Eighty-eight diabetic patients

almost entirely to the war research projects had their metabolism measured on 138

that are being carried on in cooperation days. In addition, 10 nondiabetic patients

with the Harvard School of Public Health, were studied on 13 days for comparative

The investigation which started on Janu- purposes. The measurements included ob-

ary 1, 1942 is still in progress. Apparatus servations on the basal metabolism and on

have been devised and data have been ac- the metabolic effect of ingestion of 50

cumulated that deal with important aspects grams of dextrose or of levulose, with or

of human physiology. When and if re- without insulin simultaneously adminis-

leased for publication, these methods and tered. Since about the first of December

physiological results will prove of value to 1942, blood samples have been taken from

all other workers in the same fields, as it most of the patients under basal conditions

will be possible to obtain data not pre- and again approximately \ hour, 1 hour,

viously accessible. It is fortunate that war and 2 hours after administration of the

emergency requirements have resulted in sugar, and these have been analyzed for

such real scientific advancement in human their sugar, pyruvic acid, and lactic acid

physiology. contents. Dr. Elmer Stotz, of the McLean

In addition to the defense activities of Hospital, Waverley, Massachusetts, has co-

the staff itself, a special project in connec- operated in making these blood analyses,

tion with the war is in progress in space Comparisons have been made of the basal

made available to Dr. J. H. Mueller, of metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism

the Department of Bacteriology and Im- of diabetic and nondiabetic individuals as

munology of the Harvard Medical School, affected by hyperthyroidism. Studies have

Since December 1942, two laboratory rooms likewise been made of diabetics having

have been occupied exclusively by Dr. such complications as acidosis, coma, ade-

Mueller and his staff, and the Carnegie noma of the thyroid, pituitary tumor, and

Institution of Washington has supplied the hypoglycemia. On November 29, 1942,

necessary utilities such as gas, water, heat, with the cooperation of Dr. Robley D.

and electrical power for the carrying on Evans, of the Massachusetts Institute of

of his work. This project is entirely inde- Technology, observations were made on 10

pendent of the regular activities of the diabetic patients and 5 normal controls, to

Nutrition Laboratory. stuc ly tne rate f absorption of 25 units

of radioactive insulin with respect to dif-

Metabolism in Diabetes Mellitus £erent types o£ patient The respiratory

The investigation on the gaseous ex- exchange measurements were made by

change in diabetes has continued this year Jeannette F. Rayner on a full-time basis

under a special grant from the Carnegie from July 1, 1942 to March 1, 1943, and

Institution, with the active cooperation of thereafter on a half-time basis until June

Dr. Elliott P. Joslin and Dr. Howard F. 30, 1943.

164

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

STAFF NOTES

On January 15, 1943, Dr. Carpenter was
appointed an official investigator of Section
1 1.2 of Division 11 of the National Defense
Research Committee. On February 1, 1943,
he was appointed Special Research Asso-
ciate of Harvard University. On Novem-
ber 20, 1942, he gave his annual lecture
on basal metabolism to the first-year class
of the Harvard Medical School.

Robert C. Lee, having completed the
academic requirements, was given the
degree of Master of Arts by Boston Uni-
versity at its annual commencement exer-
cises on May 24, 1942.

Mrs. Mary F. Schroader was appointed

laboratory technician on a part-time basis,
on March 11, 1943.

Throughout the year Robert C. Lee,
George Lee, and V. Coropatchinsky have
devoted their entire time to war research
projects, and Dr. Carpenter has given
about half his time to these activities. Miss
Elsie A. Wilson has used about one and
one-half months of her time on the prepa-
ration and editing of reports to the Office
of Scientific Research and Development.

The number of scientists and especially
men in the service who have visited the
Nutrition Laboratory for consultation and
in connection with war research has been
larger this year than in past years.

LITERARY WORK

Definitions have been prepared by Dr.
Carpenter for a "Dictionary of dietetics"
that is to be published by the Philosophical
Library, Inc., New York City. These
definitions include terms that are in com-
mon use in reports on energy transforma-
tion and intermediary metabolism.

The following articles have been com-
pleted for publication in scientific journals:

"Partial pressures of carbon dioxide and
oxygen in expired air and alveolar air
when oxygen is breathed at different at-
mospheric pressures," by Thorne M. Car-
penter and Robert C. Lee. (Accepted for
publication in the Journal of Aviation
Medicine))

"Human respiratory quotients in rela-
tion to alveolar carbon dioxide and blood
lactic acid after ingestion of glucose, fruc-
tose, or galactose," by H. T. Edwards,
E. H. Bensley, D. B. Dill, and T. M.
Carpenter.

"The absorption of radioactive insulin
in human diabetes," by H. F. Root, J. W.
Irvine, Jr., R. D. Evans, T. M. Carpenter,
and L. Reiner.

Miss Elsie A. Wilson has had an effi-
cient and active part in the calculations
and editorial preparation both of these
manuscripts and of the publications listed
below.

PUBLICATIONS

(1) An apparatus for measuring air flow during
inspiration. Robert C. Lee and Leslie Sil-
verman. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 14, pp. 174-
181 (1943).

For measurement of the rate of flow of
air during inspiration, an instrument offering
no appreciable resistance to air flow has been
devised, in cooperation with the Harvard
School of Public Health. In principle, this

instrument employs as a measure of flow the
displacement of a fine wire in an air stream
with a uniform velocity profile. A micro-
scopic platinum wire, suspended on a metal
frame, is connected at one end with a small,
light tension spring and is attached at the
other end to a fixed point. The upper and
lower parts of the wire are enclosed in metal
ducts. The middle part passes through a

NUTRITION LABORATORY

165

metal tube, fastened horizontally to the frame,
and is visible through holes in this tube. The
displacement of the wire by flow of air
through the tube is magnified optically and
recorded photographically by a moving paper
camera. The deflection of the wire is linear
with air flow, and its inertia, lag, and fre-
quency of vibration do not interfere with
respiratory measurements. Two specially de-
signed low-resistance tubular valves and a
metabolism mask complete the apparatus.
Flow records and gasometer measurements
obtained simultaneously with three subjects
at rest and while riding a bicycle ergometer
at different rates showed close agreement, the
average deviation of flow record from gasome-
ter record being 2.1 per cent.

(2) Methods of stating dosage of alcohol and

concentration of alcohol in tissues. Thorne
M. Carpenter. Quart. Jour. Studies on
Alcohol, vol. 3, pp. 165-167 (1942).

This is an editorial, which emphasizes the
importance of exactness in statements re-
garding dosage and concentration of alcohol
in tissues and fluids, to avoid confusion when
comparisons are made between the results
of different experimental findings.

(3) The effect of glucose administration in dia-

betic acidosis. Howard F. Root and
Thorne M. Carpenter. Amer. Jour. Med.
Sci., vol. 206, pp. 234-243 (1943).

According to observations on the respira-
tory quotient, the carbohydrate combustion of

patients in diabetic coma is not increased by
administration of glucose either intravenously
or by mouth. The use of insulin alone in
early diabetic acidosis increases carbohydrate
combustion. Even with insulin administra-
tion, however, not more than 10 grams of
carbohydrate can be or need be oxidized
per hour to reduce the rate of fat metabolism
and hence to check the formation of ketone
bodies. Administration of large amounts of
glucose is ineffective in diabetic acidosis and
may be harmful in that the rise in blood
sugar produced by glucose will make it diffi-
cult to determine from changes in blood sugar
the required insulin dosages, such excessive
hyperglycemia is harmful to the pancreas,
excessive glucose concentration in blood and
tissues may result in anuria, and excessive
glucose administration may lead to damage
to the liver. These harmful effects may be
concealed in early diabetic coma by the fa-
vorable effects of insulin simultaneously given.
Moderate coma may be converted by glucose
administration into severe coma requiring
excessive insulin dosage. In advanced coma,
glucose administration may precipitate the
final stage of anuria. The object of treatment
in diabetic coma is to restore normal utiliza-
tion of carbohydrate by administration of the
requisite amount of insulin. By this means
the excessive amounts of glucose in blood and
tissue fluids are oxidized or stored, liver
glycogen is replenished, and excessive ketosis
is reduced by the decrease in rate of total
metabolism and in rate of fat metabolism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carpenter, Thorne M. Methods of stating
dosage of alcohol and concentration of al-
cohol in tissues. Quart. Jour. Studies on
Alcohol, vol. 3, pp. 165-167 (1942). /

See Root, Howard F.

Lee, Robert C, and Leslie Silverman. An
apparatus for measuring air flow during

inspiration. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 14, pp. 174-
181 (1943).

Root, Howard F., and Thorne M. Carpenter.
The effect of glucose administration in dia-
betic acidosis. Amer. Jour. Med. Sci., vol.
206, pp. 234-243 (1943).

Silverman, Leslie. See Lee, Robert C.

SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

W. E. Castle, University of California, Berkeley, California. Experimental studies of
heredity in small mammals. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 3 to 38,
40, and 41.)

Investigations of genetic linkage in the ance but carrying the two genes in the
rat carried on in collaboration with Dr. repulsion relation k^/ st. Such an individual
Helen Dean King, of the Wistar Institute, when outcrossed to normal animals pro-
have in the past year yielded two positive duces four classes of young, all alike and
results. The order of the four mutant normal in appearance but different in fact,
genes located in chromosome II has been as can be demonstrated by mating them

found to be

Cu an in b

4 8 45

and the map distances approximately as
shown. This is a correction and more
precise determination of the finding re-
ported last year. The mutant genes con-
cerned are Curly, a dominant hair-modify-
ing gene; anemia, a lethal resulting from a

to Fi animals which carry both genes.
Such matings show the animals under
test to be (1) carriers of \ but not of st,
(2) carriers of st but not of ^, these two
classes being non-crossovers; or (3) carriers
of both \ and st, or (4) carriers of neither,
these two classes being crossovers. In 81
completed tests the indicated classes are
12 and 14 (crossovers) and 29 and 26 (non-
crossovers). The totals are thus 26 cross-

deficiency of red blood corpuscles; incisor

less, complete absence of the important overs to 55 non-crossovers, a crossover per-

gnawing teeth; and brown, replacing black centa § e o£ V- ± 6 '9- Further tests are being

pigment in the hair.

The other positive finding is a demon-
stration of linkage between two genes,
kinky and stub, which constitute a fourth

made to give this figure greater precision.
To summarize our present knowledge
of linkage in the rat, we have four demon-
strated linkage groups with map distances

(IV) linkage system for the rat. Kinky as follows:
is a hair-modifying gene similar in its
effects to Curly and Curly-, which also I-

result in shortened curly hair, but kinky
is a recessive in heredity, whereas the curly
genes are dominants. Stub is a lethal when
homozygous, which shortens the tail and
produces other abnormalities particularly
in the posterior half of the body, though
it also results frequently in microphthal-
mia, especially in the left eye.

A cross between kinky and stub pro-
duces Fi individuals normal in appear-

I c r

p w

3-3 3- 8

23.3 58.6

TT Cu an

in b

11.

8 45

III kr

111.

4°-3

IV. k

3 2

Other tests for linkage are in progress but
with results as yet inconclusive.

167

x 68 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Paul S. Conger, United States National Museum, Washington, District of Columbia.
Investigations and preparation for publication of results of studies on Diatomaceae.
(For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 18 to 41.)

Activities of the laboratory during the was furnished to an entomologist for use
year consisted mainly of a continuation of as a "tagging" method, or marker, in dust-
studies of the distribution and ecology of ing the bodies of aphids, in experiments
Atlantic coast diatoms in particular, with to determine their course and rate of geo-
some work on antarctic materials and graphic distribution from a given center
other collections from smaller localized of growth. This is supplementary to a
areas. The former is of special interest method using aniline dye powders for the
because of the great diversity of the coast same purpose, and has some advantages
line as a favorable region for abundant over the latter. The rate of dispersal is
diatom growth, because of the economic quite rapid and often follows a definite
aspects of the subject in relation to fisheries, course. The obvious importance of these
and because of the prevalence of marine studies lies in their bearing not only on
laboratories, where the related studies of measures for the prevention of the spread
marine biologists and oceanographers find of these pests, but also on the control of
increasing need for information regarding plant diseases transmitted by them,
the diatoms. Many requests for such in- Samples of diatomaceous materials of
formation were answered, including a various composition were furnished to
number from members of the armed two laboratories for use in studies with
services regarding application to the war the electron microscope, and this work
effort. led to the development in our own labora-

The comprehensive abstract bibliography tory of experiments on a new method for
of diatom literature, which has been in the orientation of particular specimens of
process of accumulation over many years, such material, which should be of con-
was greatly extended during this past year, siderable benefit in their study under the
This mine of information is still, however, electron microscope. Such examinations
much in arrears, because of lack of per- have been made heretofore on random ma-
sonnel to cover the vast amount of litera- terial chancing to fall in suitable position,
ture dealing with the many phases of rather than on definitely selected and
diatoms and their importance. The value oriented specimens. This possibility of
of this great amount of time-consuming orientation has evidently many advan-
work can only be appreciated when one tages, but the method is unfortunately
considers the flexibility that will be afforded not applicable to other than diatomaceous
by its use. materials.

Identifications of diatoms were again Two months during the summer were

made for the Carnegie Institution Division again devoted to field research at the

of Plant Biology, in connection with studies Chesapeake Biological Laboratory, during

on diatom pigments and their special pho- which time investigations, both qualitative

tosynthesis. Many other identifications and quantitative, were carried out on the

were also made for various workers in production of marsh gas from diatoma-

diverse fields' of investigation. ceous lake-bottom sediments. Several new

A new and interesting application of pieces of apparatus were devised for the

diatoms came in the field of entomology, work. These, the results obtained, and

Selected diatom material of several types the general aspects of the whole problem

SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES x 5q

of marsh-gas formation from bottom sedi- fouling materials on the bottoms of ships

ments were summed up in an article pre- and other floating objects,

pared during the year, and now in the This varied information is being gath-

hands of the printer. ered and organized toward the prepara-

Some observations were also made while tion, already under way, of a general treat-

at the Chesapeake Laboratory on the rate ment of the whole subject of the diatoms

of growth of diatoms on submerged sur- and their importance,
faces, as a factor in the accumulation of

Arthur T. Hertig and John Rock, Boston Lying-in Hospital, Boston, and Free Hos-
pital for Women, Brookline, Massachusetts. Research in embryology, embryological

pathology, and reproductive physiology. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos.
361041.)

The studies on these various aspects of figure constitutes, therefore, an index of

human reproduction have had continued human fertility within a group of known

financial support through the Carnegie fertile patients who had recorded coital

Institution of Washington's Department of dates during the estimated period of ovu-

Embryology. As in the past, additional lation preceding operation. These data,

funds from the William F. Milton Fund together with those pertaining to the time

of Harvard University have helped to of ovulation, time of implantation, and

defray the technical and secretarial ex- location of the implanted ovum have re-

penses involved in these joint researches. 1 cently been published by the authors.

Since the last report, 2 additional normal, Using these data on the time of ovulation

recently implanted human ova have been together with those obtained in the recovery

found in surgically removed uteri at the of two unfertilized tubal ova, the authors

Free Hospital for Women. The patients participated in a conference on "Biology of

from whom these uteri were removed con- Fertility," held under the auspices of the

stitute a special study group, the charac- National Committee on Maternal Health

teristics of which have recently been pub- in New York City, in January 1943.

lished by the authors (see bibliography). Using the series of 7 normal ova and 5

Eleven such patients have been operated abnormal ova available up to the present

upon in the past report year, bringing the re port year, a paper was prepared on the

total number to 72 for the past 5 years, development of the early human ovum

From this group of patients there have w i tn special reference to the trophoblast

been recovered 14 recently implanted ova, f tne pre-villous stage. This paper was

9 of which have been normal and 5 ab- read be f ore the Chicago Gynecological

normal. Thus the incidence of pregnancy Society, in December 1942. A summary

in these rigidly selected patients continues o£ thls paper has appeared in the l iterature ,

to be approximately 20 per cent. This and the entjre paper wlU appear SQon {q

1 The Milton Fund largely supports Dr. Rock's the American Journal of Obstetrics and

researches on ovarian and tubal ova, whereas Gynecology.

the Carnegie funds are used mainly in the The American Association of Anatomists

search for early fertilized human ova. Inasmuch i-j «. u u v 1

y . „ . . , , did not hold its annual meeting in 104^

as the two authors collaborate in both these r 111 r

studies, credit is given to each Fund in reporting because of the war, but the abstracts of

the results of the authors' past year's work. the papers thus canceled were published

170

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

in the Anatomical Record. The significant
features of the 72-day ovum (Carnegie
8020) and the 92-day ovum (Carnegie
8004) whose recovery was recorded in Year
Book No. 41 have thus been published
during the past year.

The two recently implanted ova most
lately acquired are estimated to be ap-
proximately 7 and 8 days of age, and were
recovered on the 22d and 23d days of the
menstrual cycle respectively. In some re-
spects the younger one (Carnegie 8155)
appears younger than the 72-day specimen
(Carnegie 8020) recovered last year, and
in others it appears more developed. It is
smaller in its significant measurements and
has a trophoblast that is less mature al-
though the amniotic cavity is in a more
advanced state of development. The ovum
had probably been implanted approxi-
mately 24 to 36 hours at the time of its
recovery. Thus the human ovum appears
to implant when it is about 5 or 6 days
of age; that is, on the 19th or 20th day
of the standard menstrual cycle.

The trophoblastic shell of the ovum is
very indifferently developed and is com-
posed of the two main types of trophoblast,
namely, syncytio- and cytotrophoblast. The
former is actively engaged in invading
the maternal tissue and engulfing portions
thereof, to be subsequently digested and
used as food for the growing ovum.

The embryonic or germ disk is of bi-
laminar form, consisting of the primitive
ecto- and entoderm. The amniotic cavity
has begun to develop as a cleft or space
dorsal to the germ disk and is more or
less continuous with the chorionic (or
segmentation) cavity of the ovum. The
amniogenic cells have not yet started to
delaminate from the adjacent trophoblast.

Thus the specimen furnishes valuable data
as to the time and manner of formation
of the amniotic cavity.

The second specimen (Carnegie 8171),
approximately 8 days of age, lies between
the yi- and the 92-day specimens, but
approaches the latter in its development.
It is smaller than the 92-day stage, and its
chief anatomical features are: (1) its rela-
tively small size; (2) its relatively deep
implantation; and (3) the early develop-
ment of the syncytiotrophoblastic lacunae,
elaborated for the reception of maternal
blood. Little of the latter is present, as
yet, in the spaces. This fact, together with
its deep implantation, accounted for our
inability to detect the ovum prior to fixa-
tion of the endometrium.

An additional significant feature is the
developing amniotic cavity. It is quite
similar to that of the 7-day specimen
described above. Thus the two ova re-
cently acquired elucidate a critical phase
in the development of a structure, the
amnion, whose early stages in man have
heretofore been little understood.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hertig, Arthur T., and John Rock. Develop-
ment of the early human ovum with special
reference to the trophoblast of the pre-
villous stage. (Abstract) Proc. Inst. Med.
Chicago, vol. 14, p. 639 (1943).

On the seven and one-half day

human ovum (Carnegie no. 8020). (Ab-
stract) Anat. Rec, vol. 85, p. 317 (1943).

On the nine and one-half day

human ovum (Carnegie no. 8004). (Ab-
stract) Anat. Rec, vol. 85, pp. 317-318

(i943)-
Rock, John, and Arthur T. Hertig. Some as-
pects of early human development. Amer.
Jour. Obstet. and Gynecol., vol. 44, pp. 973-
983 (1942).

SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

I 7 I

T. H. Morgan, Helen Redfield, and L. V. Morgan, California Institute of Technol-
ogy, Pasadena, California. Maintenance of a Drosophila stoc\ center, in connec-
tion with investigations on the constitution of the germinal material in relation
to heredity. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 15 to 41.)

An inventory of the stocks of Drosophila sex may be affected. All eosin triploids of

melanogaster at the California Institute this strain gave mosaic intersexes,

of Technology is as follows: An unrelated strain of triploids with two

Mutants. Chromosome (1), 183; (2), attached X chromosomes and a third free

223; (3), 179; (4), 21; multi-chromosomal, X was then crossed to males of the eosin

n. Attached-X, 3. Deficiencies: X, 14; stock. The first eosin attached-X triploids

(2), 29; (3), 2; (4), 1. Duplications, 18. obtained did not give mosaic intersexes,

Inversions: X, 32; (2), 5; (3), 11. Trans- but further backcrossing to eosin produced

locations: (152), 13; (153), 16; (154), n; triploids which did. The results were then

(Y;2), 2; (Y;3), 1; (253), 25; (254), 6; substantially as they had been in the free-X

(354), 10. Haplo-4, Triplo-4, and 3N, 5. strain. This would suggest that something

Total mutants, 821. in the eosin stock, not the eosin gene itself,

Wild stocks. Canton-S; Lausanne-S; was responsible.

Oregon-R-c; Swedish-c; Urbana-S. These Free-X eosin triploids were then crossed

stocks are available for research students, to apricot. In this allele of eosin the color

The work of Helen Redfield for the differences are not so great as for eosin,
past year falls under two heads: first, the and the color relations of the sex types are
study in Drosophila melanogaster of mosaic reversed; that is, apricot males are darker
eyes in intersex offspring of triploids, and, than apricot females, and apricot inter-
second, the completion of the studies in sexes show the slightly darker color of the
the same species of the effects of the 2N apricot males. When apricot triploids
presence of inversions on crossing over in were obtained they gave mosaic intersexes
other chromosomes. For summaries of the as did the eosin triploids; but the patches
previous studies of Schultz and Redfield were lighter than the surrounding area,
on this second topic see Carnegie Institu- instead of darker, as in the eosin mosaic
tion Year Books Nos. 29 to 34 (1930- eyes. Thus the mosaic patches in either
1935) . case take on the color of the female eye.

It; has long been known that the eyes It was thought, since not all intersex

of eosin intersexes of all sex grades show offspring showed the mosaicism, that the

the lighter color of eosin males rather latter might be immediately correlated

than the somewhat darker color of eosin with the presence of the Y chromosome;

females. A heritable mosaic eye appeared for intersexes (2X3A) may or may not

in the intersex progeny of free-X eosin contain a Y. Accordingly a stock of yel-

triploids; a definite proportion of the light low, Hairy wing, eosin was derived and

eyes of these intersexes (25 per cent) was crossed to eosin triploids. The Hairy

show patches of a darker color like that wing intersex offspring probably contain

of the 2N eosin females. A dark patch no Y, but the non-Hairy wing intersexes

ordinarily includes about a quarter of the have received their father's Y. The classi-

eye area; it may be smaller than this or fication of Hairy wing is not satisfactory

larger, in extreme cases being so large as in these intersexes (even the appearance

to include an entire eye. One eye, both of the extra occipital bristles is irregular),

eyes, or neither eye of an individual inter- but it is definite enough to show that

172

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

both Hairy wing intersexes and non-
Hairy wing intersexes may be mosaics.
Hence the mosaicism is not a direct Y
effect unless Y chromosomes are intro-
duced from the mother. It may in any
case depend indirectly on the presence in
the triploid mother of one or more Y
chromosomes. It is possible that an addi;
tional effect of another type is involved —
autosomal chromosome elimination, for
example, giving 2X2A patches, or somatic
crossing over. It is not known whether
the mosaicism appears only with sex-
linked sex-limited characters, or is found
also with other sex-linked mutants (as
singed), and with autosomal mutants of
various types. All these matters can be
tested.

This year's studies on inversion effects
on crossing over were undertaken to con-
firm the peculiar results shown by the

the Curly inversions in the second chro-
mosome and of the C1B inversion in the
first chromosome, either together or alone,
increased crossing over for most regions
of the third chromosome, but not so mark-
edly as did ClB and Payne for (2) ; in cer-
tain regions of (3), unlike (2), the effect
was apparently a decrease rather than an
increase. We believed that these differ-
ences were correlated with differences in
distribution of heterochromatin in the two
large autosomes. It was thought desirable
to test in further detail the right limb
of (3). Two types of mother were used:
ri Sb H/p p to test the central region of
this chromosome, and e k ro/bv to test
the extreme right end. XX Y mothers,
which occur with appreciable frequency
in ClB strains, were excluded. The sum-
marized results are shown in the accom-
panying table.

Inversions

Crossover values

Per cent increase

Mothers ri Sb H/p?:

ri-pP

pv-Sb

Sb-H

ri-p p

pp-Sb

Sb-H

Control

2096

0.76

7.1

11.2

ClB

2245

1.07

9.5

11.7

40.8

33.8

4.5

3103

0.52

12.2

14.5

-31.6

71.8

29.5

ClB, Cy

2698

1.08

19.0

15.6

42.1

168.0

39.3

Mothers e 4 ro/bv:

e 4 -ro

ro-bv

e A -ro

ro-bv

Control

2551

19.4

14.9

ClB

2216

23.2

16.3

19.6

9.4

2491

21.0

14.3

8.2

-4.0

Clb, Cy

2564

24.2

18.1

24.8

21.5

third chromosome as compared with the
second, as previously found by Schultz and
Redfield. It was desired also to extend
the analysis to the first chromosome, for,
excepting the work of Steinberg (1936,
1937), there are no extensive data on the
effects of inversions in (2) and (3) on
crossing over in (1), and Steinberg's crosses
do not include the critical spindle-fiber
region.
It had been found that the presence of

The percentage increases found in the
table are obtained by dividing the actual
increases by the respective control cross-
over values. It is clear that the first-chro-
mosome inversion produces an increase in
crossing over throughout this right limb of
(3). The second-chromosome inversions
also produce increases with the apparent
exception of the ri-p v and ro-bv regions,
in which there are decreases; these de-
creases are in themselves not of statistical

SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES ^

significance, but are like those found in The fragment extends from the centro-
the earlier crosses. The combination of mere of chromosome (4) to the distal range
inversions of (1) and (2) produces marked of the bands of section 102C of the salivary
increases in all regions, particularly in the chromosome. In preparations of salivary
middle of this right limb. The first- glands, chromosome (4) when it carries
chromosome C1B inversion is thus more spa shows a pale area proximal to the dark
effective in increasing crossing over at the band 102D1. The two lines of evidence
center and at the extreme right end of (3) combined place the locus of spa in the
than the second-chromosome Cy inver- distal ranges of the section 102C.
sions, but for the intermediate regions Cy Sparkling is an allelomorph of Cataract
has more effect than ClB. The results are (Belgovsky), which is a dominant char-
in essential agreement with the results acter manifested by roughness of the eye,
previously obtained for (3). more particularly of the posterior edge.

Extensive tests were made of crossing When Cataract is heterozygous for spa,
over in the first chromosome, using the the anterior part of the eye is rougher than
second-chromosome Cy inversions and the in Cataract over wild type,
third-chromosome Payne inversions. The Sparkling shows characteristics of a
mothers were of the composition y 2 cv variegation. It is affected by the proper-
s' f/ec car bb. The data are not yet all tabu- tion of heterochromatin to euchromatin
lated, but the results so far may be given present in the nucleus. For example, in
briefly. The increases in crossing over di- homozygous spa flies, sparkling is regu-
vided by the control values, i.e. the per- larly seen in XX females, but not in XXY
centage increases, for the various regions females, or in males (XY). It is exag-
are as follows: for y 2 -ec: Cy = 85.2; Payne gerated in XO males. Sparkling is sensitive
= 68.7; Cy, Payne = 198.0. For ec-cv: Cy= also to other proportions of heterochro-
106.0; Payne = 47.8; Cy, Payne = 176.4. For matin and euchromatin. It not infre-
cv—v: Cy = 5i.5; Payne = 29.0; Cy, Payne quently shows exceptional grades of mani-
= 69.6. For v—j: Cy = 27.o; Payne = 42.9; festation due presumably to modifiers. It
Cy, Payne = 77.2. For f-car: Cy = 8«3; is of a higher grade when flies are raised
Payne = 69.4; Cy, Payne = 120.8. For car— at low temperatures.

bb: Cy = 2.2; Payne = 17.8; Cy, Payne = Regular smooth-eyed homozygous spa

132.8. Further analysis of the results of males were X-rayed, and mated to homo-

these crossover studies and the discussion zygous spa females. Among the offspring

of the theoretical implications are better a number of variants of spa were found

left for the detailed presentation. and have produced lines which have not

L. V. Morgan reports observations on yet been cytologically studied in salivary

two characters heretofore undescribed. A chromosomes.

rough eye character called sparkling (spa) Among these lines there are 15 to 20,

in Drosophila melanogaster is associated eac b derived from a smooth-eyed daughter

with some alteration in chromosome (4). of a treated male, in which females as

Homozygous spa flies carrying a fragment well as males are smooth-eyed when homo-

of chromosome (4) derived from translo- zygous for the treated chromosome or

cation T(2;4)b showed exaggerated spar- heterozygous for spa. In a few of the

kling, indicating that the locus in (4) lines flies homozygous for the treated chro-

which is responsible for spa is not within mosome are more or less inviable. Those

the limits of the duplicating fragment, lines are balanced with a fourth chromo-

i74

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

some carrying ci D (cubitus-interruptus
dominant) and the normal allelomorph
of spa, showing that it is chromosome (4)
that has been altered by the X-ray treat-
ment.

Thirty of the treated males mated to
sparkling females each produced a high-
grade rough-eyed son heterozygous for
the treated chromosome and for spa. Most
of them were sterile, but three gave rise to
lines which show that in them the ex-
cessively rough character is recessive to the
wild-type allelomorph of spa (in a ci D
chromosome). In one of the lines the
altered chromosome is lethal when homo-
zygous.

The translocation T(2;4)b was used to
determine more closely than heretofore the
loci of shaven-naked (sv n ) and of recessive
eyeless (ey 2 ). Both were found to be
distal to the break in T (2 54)0, i.e., distal
to the proximal bands of section 102C of
the salivary chromosome.

Diploid intersexes have been found in

Drosophila melanogaster due to a recessive
gene (ix) located at 60.5 ± in chromosome
(2). Flies carrying two X's which are
heterozygous for ix are entirely female in
appearance and are fertile females; 2X indi-
viduals homozygous for ix are sterile in-
tersexes. They have no sex combs, but
show in varying degrees both male and
female characteristics in regard to shape
and pigmentation of the abdomen and the
presence of male and female genitalia
and gonads.

Flies carrying one X are fertile whether
heterozygous or homozygous for ix. The
two genotypes have been so far indis-
tinguishable in appearance, and both are
fertile as males. Intersexes are intermedi-
ate in size between females and males. The
weights of 31 etherized females (hetero-
zygous for ix), 31 intersexes, and 31 males
(heterozygous or homozygous for ix) of a
sample from one culture were respectively
0.037, °-°34> an d 0.024 grams.

G. Oscar Russell, Washington, District of Columbia. Researches in the physiological
cause of voice quality differences. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 28—33,

35> 37, 38.)

Equipment was conditioned and recon-
structed for a final check on the validity
of our previous analysis and classification
of voice disorders apparently caused by
deafness. For that purpose, we returned to
Columbus, Ohio, where the first check had
been made, and carried through a new
group of entering children in the Ohio
State School for the Deaf. All these are
so young that they represent those usually
designated as congenitally deaf, since their
hearing was impaired before normal speech
and voice habits had been established, and
it is difficult to determine with any de-
gree of accuracy just when the impair-
ment occurred. Where they are all below
age six, and the deafness is profound, the

experiments show that the voice quality
and manifestations are never normal. That
is due undoubtedly to two factors: first,
the transient nature, and difficulty of per-
manent fixation, of any habits acquired
in that period; and, second, the consequent
lack of acoustic engrams, or auditory con-
trol patterns. We now know that over
40 per cent of the meaning of speech is
conveyed by intonation or voice differen-
tiations rather than by the words them-
selves. The experiments show definitely,
therefore, that it is this voice factor which
accounts for a large part of the difficulty
one has in understanding the speech of
the congenitally deaf. If means of training
a substitution for the acoustic engrams

SPECIAL PROJECTS: BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

175

could be devised, a profound improvement ing the voice; the phonetic classification;
might well be expected. the classification of physiological and con-
Three major studies bearing on this prob- genital anomalies affecting voice; the psy-
lem have been published since the last chiatric; the neurological and cortical lesion
report, all being monographs of the Utah effects; the psychological in its abnormal
State Research Laboratories : The language manifestations; and the mnemonic. They
of the deaf; The language of the blind, a are being published in the form of classi-
comparative study; and The organization fixation tables, analysis articles, and defini-
for a training program. tions, in a Cyclopedic medical dictionary
The following have been completed : the of speech, voice, and hearing disorder
pathological classification, on diseases affect- terms, now in press.

DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Cambridge, Massachusetts
A. V. KIDDER, Chairman

During the past year the Division has
undertaken no archaeological exploration
or excavation, nor is it probable that ac-
tivities of this sort can be resumed for
some years to come. Not only has field
work been suspended, but many members
of the staflf — archaeologists, ethnologists,
historians — are now, or soon will be, in the
armed forces or engaged in other activities
connected with the war. Hence no fresh
archaeological data are coming in. More-
over, the men in service are of course
unable to complete reports on investiga-

tions in progress at the outbreak of hos-
tilities. Among them are several of par-
ticular importance: H. E. D. Pollock's
architectural survey of Yucatan; G. W.
Brainerd's and J. M. Longyear's studies
of the pottery of Yucatan and Copan;
G. Stromsvik's excavations at Copan;
and A. L. and R. E. Smith's work at
Uaxactun. The research of A. M. Hal-
pern on the Maya languages has also been
interrupted, as have the studies by R. S.
Chamberlain on the history of the con-
quest of Yucatan.

ACTIVITIES 1942-1943

During the period under review several various aspects of Yucatecan history. S. L.

members of the staflf and associates have Bradshaw has continued preparation for

entered war service. H. E. D. Pollock is the press of the exhaustive study of Maya

an officer of the Army Air Corps on duty grammar left unfinished at the death of

in North Africa. K. Ruppert is overseas M. J. Andrade.

with the American Field Service. R. E. Before entering service, Mr. Stromsvik

Smith is working with the United States
military attache in Guatemala. G. Stroms-
vik is in the Norwegian Navy; G. W.
Brainerd and E. W. Andrews are in that
of the United States. R. S. Chamberlain
is Senior Cultural Assistant in the United
States Embassy in Guatemala. A. M. Hal-

returned to Copan to make arrangements
for storage of Institution equipment and
for supervision of the ruins and museum
by the Government of Honduras. Mr.
Shook, who is temporarily remaining in
Guatemala, has had opportunity to carry
out certain minor explorations. He has

pern is giving instruction in Japanese at also studied local museum and private
the University of Chicago. Others have collections and has investigated several
been engaged in the writing of reports: finds of archaeological material made in
S. G. Morley on the hieroglyphic inscrip- the course of road and airfield construc-
tions, A. L. Smith on the excavations at tion and by private individuals. Most
Uaxactun, J. E. S. Thompson on those notable of the latter was a cache of plum-
at El Baul, E. M. Shook and A. V. Kidder bate vessels and a gold plaque unearthed
on those at Kaminaljuyu, Anna O. Shep- near Quezaltenango by Sr. Vitalino Robles,
ard on plumbate pottery, Tatiana Pros- who most generously made these very
kouriakoflf on Maya architecture and sculp- important specimens available for study,
ture, E. H. Morris on excavations in Colo- F. B. Richardson was obliged, for rea-
rado, F. V. Scholes and R. L. Roys on sons of health, to postpone further work
15 l 77

178

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

S. G. MORLEY

on the problem of the deeply buried human Secretaria de Education Publica, the Cam-
footprints near Managua, Nicaragua. He peche Museum has been excavating the
is now in South America, making obser- ruins of Etzna, an extremely important
vations on monumental stone sculpture site in central Campeche which has close
for comparison with that of the Maya affiliations not only with the Old Empire
area. S. H. Boggs completed the photo- but also with the Puuc Period of the
graphing of several large collections of New Empire. Three new Initial Series
pottery in Salvador and has also been were discovered, as follows: Stela 18,
preparing a final report on the excavations 9.12.0.0.0 10 Ahau 8 Yaxkin; Stela 19,
at Campana San Andres, which were 9.13.0.0.0 8 Ahau 8 Uo (?); and a third,
financed and carried out by Mr. John a fragmentary one, inscribed on the risers
Dimick under the auspices of Carnegie of the hieroglyphic stairway leading to the
Institution. principal temple.

More detailed reports on certain activi- Mr. Alberto Ruz Lhuillier, of the Insti-

ties follow. tuto Nacional de' Antropologia e Historia,

who was in charge of the excavation at

Hieroglyphic Research Etzna assisted by Mr. Raul Pavon Abreu,

Director of the Campeche Museum, spent
a week studying the Institution's ceramic

Dr. Morley spent the summer of 1942 sherd collections in Merida toward the

in Santa Fe, New Mexico, with offices at end of May.
the Laboratory of Anthropology, where

on June 1 he began the writing of a popu- Ceramic Technology
lar book on the Maya civilization, The
ancient Maya. He returned to Merida,

Yucatan, September 1 and has since been The study of plumbate ware, outlined

devoting his time to the completion of in Year Book No. 41, has been continued

the book, which he finished early in June through the current year. In the summer

1943. During the fall, winter, and spring of 1942 collections in Mexico, Guatemala,

he made a number of trips to Uxmal, and and Salvador were examined, and with the

early in May visited the newly founded assistance of Miss Janice Snow in tabu-

Museo Arqueologico, Etnografico e His- lating and sketching, a complete descrip-

torico del Estado de Campeche, at Cam- tive and photographic record was made

peche, a splendid local institution. of plumbate vessels in the national mu-

Work on the hieroglyphic dictionary seums of the countries visited and in ten
has gone forward. All Initial Series intro- large private collections. The most gener-
ducing glyphs at 39 sites (Copan and the ous cooperation was received from museum
38 sites covered in Dr. Morley's study officials and owners of collections. The
The inscriptions of Peten) have been file on plumbate ware has thus been ex-
drawn to scale, each on a separate card, tended by 344 vessels and now furnishes
Work has been commenced on another an adequate basis for defining plumbate
section of the dictionary, that presenting style and workmanship, a task necessary
all known examples of Glyph C of the in order to determine the relationships of
Supplementary Series. this important ware.

In cooperation with the Instituto Na- While in Guatemala Miss Shepard

cional de Antropologia e Historia of the visited the site of Tajumulco in company

DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

179

with Mr. Shook, and short reconnaissance
trips were made to several near-by sites.
The frequency of occurrence of plumbate
in this area, as well as indications of the
population which the region supported,
are of particular interest because of the
large collection of plumbate vessels exca-
vated from Tajumulco under the auspices
of the Museum of New Mexico.

Several weeks in Guatemala City were
spent in microscopic examination of sherds
from the 1942 excavations of Mr. Thomp-
son at El Baul and Mr. Shook at Ka-
minaljuyu. Subsequently plumbate ware
from both sites and other wares from
El Baul, particularly that called Tiqui-
sate, which is associated with plumbate
and bears some resemblance to it in oxi-
dized surface colors, were thin-sectioned
in the laboratory and analyzed petro-
graphically. When the paste and slip of
plumbate from El Baul and Kaminaljuyu
were compared with those of typical plum-
bate, Miss Shepard noted minor differ-
ences, which may be significant in view
of the distinct vessel shapes characteristic
of these two sites.

The remainder of the year has been de-
voted to the preparation of the plumbate
report.

Southwestern Archaeology
E. H. Morris

The entire year ending June 30, 1943
was spent by Mr. Morris in office work.
A minor but time-consuming part of the
latter consisted of the revision of archaeo-
logical manuscripts submitted to him for
criticism.

Early in September, Robert F. Burgh,
who had been a collaborator in the South-
west Project for several years, joined the
armed forces. His many drawings for the
report on Basket Maker sites near Du-
rango, Colorado, excavated during 1938,

1939, and 1940, were in various stages of
completion at the time of his departure.
By March, with the assistance of Miss
Jean Zeigler, these had been brought to
what is believed to be the finished stage.
Captions were prepared to document the
more complicated of the drawings, and
considerable progress was made in the
study and photographing of specimens
from the Durango sites.

In order to utilize the technical skill of
Miss Zeigler, after the Durango drawings
were finished, the analysis and graphic
depiction of the weaves of Basket Maker
sandals was begun. For this study a large
body of material is in hand — some 300
sandals from dry caves in northeastern
Arizona excavated by Carnegie Institution
under the direction of Mr. Morris in 1931.
In the fabrication of Basket Maker sandals
the Anasazi reached their highest attain-
ment in textile art. Although the sandals
are of a number of varieties, in the finer
types customarily the upper side bears
zones of delicate patterns in color and the
under side is decorated with patterns in
relief, usually more involved than the col-
ored ones on the opposite surface. These
hand-woven relief patterns were produced
by manipulations of the weft strands so
devious that only by most careful dissection
and the drawing of each stitch as it is
unraveled can the construction of the
fabric be determined. Only one Basket
Maker sandal has hitherto been thoroughly
reported upon, that described by A. V. Kid-
der in the American Anthropologist, n. s.,
vol. 28, pp. 618-632 (1926). In view of the
several styles evident among the sandals
and of the wide variation in layout and
visual effect within the styles, a complete
study of the highly complicated technique
evolved and practiced by the Anasazi has
for years been called for. Such a study will
be a long undertaking, but it is the inten-
tion of Mr. Morris to continue with it

Robert Redfield and Associates

!8o CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

until the results can be presented in a Dr. Tax, while in Mexico, was in con-
publication comparable in thoroughness tact with the group of linguistic mis-
and detail with Anasazi basketry, which sionaries of the Summer Institute of
came from the press in 1941. Linguistics. This organization has trained

linguists stationed in many Indian com-

Social Anthropology munities in the country, including some

in outlying Maya communities on which
there is almost no ethnological informa-
Dr. Tax spent most of the year in tion. Finding them eager to be of as-
Mexico. From July through November he sistance, Dr. Tax took time to instruct
taught at the Escuela Nacional de Antro- many of them in methods of obtaining
pologia; December and January he spent reliable ethnographic data,
with nine students in the Tzotzil com- The expedition to Zinacantan, although
munity of Zinacantan, Chiapas, instructing primarily a training enterprise for students
them in techniques of ethnographic field of the Mexican Institute of Anthropology,
work. February he also devoted to this furnished a considerable body of data on
work, assisting the students in preparing this hitherto unknown community. The
a report on the work of the expedition, whole Tzotzil group has been almost un-
The next months, to the middle of June, touched by scientific research. In conjunc-
were devoted chiefly to making last re- tion with the results of Sr. Villa's work
visions of his manuscript on The economy among the Tzeltal, the results of the ex-
of the Indians of Panajachel, Guatemala, pedition give us a good start in under-
While in Mexico, Dr. Tax began, with standing the ethnology and sociology of
the cooperation of the Escuela Nacional the Maya groups in Chiapas. The report
de Antropologia and the collaboration of of the expedition is still incomplete, but
its cartographer, Sta. Rita Lopez de Llergo, will probably be published in Mexico
a large-scale language-density map of the within a year. As a further result of this
Maya area. This map makes use of data expedition and of Dr. Tax's teaching pro-
from the original schedules of the 1940 gram in Mexico, a new research project, in
Census of Mexico, furnished through the which three of the students will return tc
courtesy of the Department of Statistics the same region of Chiapas for six months
of the Mexican Government, to spot the each to work on problems of social anthro-
population, classified by language reported pological interest, is under serious con-
spoken, as accurately as possible. When sideration. As planned, it will be financed
the Mexican part is completed, it is hoped cooperatively by the Institute Nacional de
to extend the localization on the map to Antropologia e Historia, the State of Chia-
Guatemala, British Honduras, and the pas, and the University of Chicago, and
Republic of Honduras. As projected and will get under way in the autumn of 1943.
begun, this map will be an improvement Sr. Rosales remained in Chicago until
not only over previous linguistic maps of January, when he returned to Guatemala
the area, but over population-density maps to continue the writing of his report on
as well, since the population is spotted by San Pedro la Laguna. Plans for publica-
the smallest local units. Sta. Lopez de tion of the first volume, on the technology,
Llergo has adapted to cartographic pur- in Guatemala are going forward while he
poses a decimal system of indicating the is working on the chapters on the economy,
numbers of people. Sr. Alfonso Villa R. spent about ten

DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH jgj

months studying Tzeltal communities under a cooperative arrangement with

(Dzajalchen, Yaxanal, and Tzuib). His Duke University, engaged in a preliminary

wife accompanied him, and a field resi- study of San Luis Jilotepeque, a Pokoman

dence and "branch office" of the Institution community of eastern Guatemala. Mr.

was built in Dzajalchen. In spite of dim- Melvin Tumin then spent about nine

culties — the absence of Indian men for months in the same community working

periods of work on fincas, poor food, sick- especially on problems of acculturation

ness, and the hostility of the Indians toward and the relations of Indians and Ladinos.

whites — Sr. Villa recorded excellent and Supported by the Social Science Research

abundant material. The institutions of Council, with collaboration of the Institu-

these Indians include exogamous patri- tion, he did his work under the direction

linear groups, cross-cousin marriage, a dual of Drs. Redfield, Gillin, and Tax.
division with ritual functions, and a re-
markable form of witchcraft in which the History of the Maya Area

sorcerer (in many cases) causes illness as

., r • j i i F. V. Scholes, R. L. Roys

a punishment tor a sin committed by the

sick person or a relative, and in which During the past year Mr. Scholes has

cure follows confession and lustrative devoted a large part of his time to prepara-

whipping of the sinner, after divination, tion of chapters for the volume on the

or diagnosis, by "pulse-takers." Villa will history of the cacicazgo of Acalan-Tixchel

devote the summer and autumn to prepa- to the early seventeenth century. In the

ration of a report, and to giving a course spring of 1943 Mr. Roys, who is col-

in ethnological field method in the Escuela laborating in this work, spent four weeks

Nacional. His manuscript on The Maya in Albuquerque with Mr. Scholes, during

of east central Quintana Roo has been which time various problems connected

submitted for publication. with preparation of the manuscript were

During the year plans to undertake a ironed out. The volume will be ready for

study of nutrition in Guatemala, to begin the press not later than the autumn of 1943.
this summer, matured. Dr. Tax will direct From time to time during the past year

the project, and the field work will be documentary materials relating to other

done by Srs. Antonio Goubaud Carrera topics have been studied and extracted,

and Juan Rosales. Sr. Goubaud, like Sr. Papers based on these sources will eventu-

Rosales, is a Guatemalan; this will be his ally be prepared for publication, but cer-

first official connection with the Institu- tain points should be noted at this time

tion's program, although relations between because of their obvious interest for spe-

him and members of the stafT have been cialists in Maya studies,
close since 1934 and he has spent the past One series of documents contains data

years at the University of Chicago working concerning native ruling families in the

partly under Dr. Redfield. In 1942 he par- Chancenote area, or cacicazgo of Tazees.

ticipated in a nutrition study, jointly spoil- We learn that a certain Ahau Chan was

sored by the Office of Indian Affairs and lord of eight towns in this region prior to

the University of Chicago, in New Mexico, the conquest and for some years after the

Plans call for study of the diet of both arrival of the Spaniards. He was succeeded

Indian and Ladino communities in every by his son, Don Juan Chan, and the latter,

region of Guatemala. in turn, by Don Juan Chan the Younger,

During the summer of 1942 Dr. Gillin, who was cacique and governor of Chance-

j8 2 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

note for about thirty years during the Maya. In later years Sanchez de Aguilar
latter part o£ the sixteenth century and wrote the well known treatise Informe
the early years of the seventeenth. Chan contra idolorum cultores del obispado de
the Younger married Dona Isabel Tzeh, Yucatan, thus emulating in another re-
daughter of Don Fernando Tzeh, who spect the example of Bishop Landa, author
was natural lord of other towns in the of the famous Relacion de las cosas de
Chancenote area and "descended from the Yucatan.

ancient lords of Mayapan." Thus we have Another series of documents describes
record of other Maya families which, like the serious disorders which occurred in
the Xiu, the Pech, and the ruling house of the. pueblo of Sahcabchen, southeast of
Acalan-Tixchel, were able to retain a meas- Champoton, and in adjacent areas in the
ure of power after the conquest, and we 1660's and 1670's. Although the major
learn of another line of rulers which traced causes of unrest were abuses committed
its ancestry back to chieftains resident in by provincial authorities and raids by Eng-
Mayapan prior to the disruption of the lish ships along the Gulf coast, we are
confederacy and the abandonment of the also told that one source of trouble was
city. The name Tzeh suggests that the the activity of certain Indians, including a
cacicazgo of Tazees derived its name from native priest, who went about preaching
this family. that according to prophecies the time had
During his term of office as governor of come for the Indians to abandon their
Chancenote, Don Juan Chan the Younger settlements and take refuge in the bush
received various commissions from the gov- and forest regions of the interior. Inter-
ernors of Yucatan and performed numer- pretation of these data will require con-
ous services which contributed to the ad- siderable study, for the information is by
vancement of the missionary program. He no means explicit. The testimony may
took an active part in the resettlement of refer to one of the year prophecies, but it
fugitive and heathen Indians in the eastern seems more likely that a katun prophecy,
and coastal areas of the province, and on such as we find described in the books of
one occasion collaborated with Dr. Pedro Chilam Balam, is indicated. These docu-
Sanchez de Aguilar, cura of Chancenote, ments and the idolatry episode mentioned
in the extirpation of idolatry. The Chan in the preceding paragraph serve to illus-
papers are supplemented by the probanzas, trate the survival of Maya religion and
or proofs of services, of Sanchez de Aguilar, the influence of the native priesthood,
which also mention the idolatry incident. From the Sahcabchen papers and the
Although the two sets of papers do not documents which comprise part of the
contain much detail concerning this epi- source for the Acalan-Tixchel volume we
sode, it is recorded in one place that during are able to glean interesting data concern-
the affair, which occurred about 1604, ing settlements of fugitive and apostate
Sanchez de Aguilar destroyed more than Indians in the central and southern part of
twenty idols and "three books of heathen- the peninsula in the seventeenth century,
ism and idolatry written on the bark of Some of these settlements were located in
trees, with the figures of devils which they the Matamoros— Cilvituk— Chan Laguna re-
worshiped." So it appears that Sanchez de gion, and chapter 9 of the Acalan-Tixchel
Aguilar must share with Landa and others volume will deal with missionary enter-
responsibility for the destruction of many prise in this area from 1604 to 1615.
of the ancient hieroglyphic writings of the Perhaps most interesting, in view of the

DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

183

growing interest in the archaeology of
southern and southwestern Campeche, are
references to the site called Bolonpeten.
Maler was the first person in modern
times to mention this place. In his Ex-
plorations in the Department of Peten,
Guatemala, and adjacent regions (Memoirs
of the Peabody Museum, vol. 4, p. 146),
he described his journey through central
Yucatan, and in connection with his ac-
count of the Cilvituk ruins he wrote :

Incidentally, . . . about the middle of the
nineteenth century, many free Maya families
still dwelt in the precincts of Chanlaguna and
Silbituk. Their principal settlement is said to
have been at Bolonpeten, some two leagues
west of Chanlaguna. This is a swampy region
containing islands, hence the name, "Nine
Islands." Many pottery sherds are said still
to lie around there, but the people themselves
have totally disappeared.

Andrews, in his Archaeology of south-
western Campeche (Carnegie Institution
of Washington Publication 546, p. 37),
gives additional information concerning
this swampy area. He states that it is called
Isla Pac, which "means in Spanish-Maya
'island with walls,' or 'island with ruins.' '
Continuing the discussion, he notes that
the ruins at Isla Cilvituk and Las Ruinas
north of Isla Pac are "among the last
products of indigenous architecture," and
states the belief that the ruins in Isla Pac,
or Bolonpeten, if found, "might well
bridge the gap between our knowledge
of late pre-Spanish archaeology and early
historical information. Or they might
prove that the two overlap."

From the documentary sources we learn
certain facts concerning this place. A docu-
ment of 1605 refers to it as an old site
(asiento antiguo). The exact meaning of
this phrase is not clear, but the context
implies that the place was not occupied
in 1605. The Sahcabchen papers describe

it as a place "surrounded by nine small
islands (islotes)" from which it was pos-
sible to go by canoe to Popola, located on
or near the lower course of the Mamantel
River. It was inhabited at this time (1670)
and its cacique was one of the leaders of
the malcontent Indians of the interior. We
have no positive record that the place was
occupied at the time of the conquest, but
there is some evidence that when the Span-
iards arrived some of the Cehache settle-
ments may have extended as far north
as the Cilvituk region. Data on this point
will be presented in the Acalan-Tixchel
volume.

During the year Mr. Scholes and Miss
Adams published a paper on "Books in
New Mexico, 1 598-1 680," a contribution
to the intellectual history of colonial Span-
ish America. They have also made prog-
ress on a volume entitled Don Juan
Dominguez de Mendoza, soldier and fron-
tiersman of the Southwest, to be published
in the Coronado Historical Series spon-
sored by the University of New Mexico.

Dr. Chamberlain, who is on leave of
absence, continued to serve as Senior Cul-
tural Assistant of the United States Em-
bassy in Guatemala City.

United States History
L. F. Stock, J. J. Meng

Dr. Stock's sixth volume of Proceedings
and debates of the British Parliaments re-
specting North America in its final editing
has not progressed beyond 1758. But if
war restrictions, especially those found
necessary by the Library of Congress, have
thus retarded the editorial progress of the
work, the process of assembling and pre-
paring for the printer the selected text
for the volume has gone steadily forward,
so that its publication should not be unduly
delayed. It has also been possible, because
of this editorial interruption, to examine

184

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

collections outside Washington for perti-
nent materials. Especially profitable was
a visit to the William L. Clements Library,
Ann Arbor, Michigan, whose rich collec-
tions yielded much for both text and anno-
tation. For the period beyond that cov-
ered by the fifth volume the materials
become more plentiful for each succeeding
year. This is especially true of reports of
parliamentary debates. This abundant
mass may make necessary in future vol-
umes some departure from the plan of
inclusion and exclusion which has hereto-
fore been followed. Whatever decision
may be reached will, it is hoped, result in
no sacrifice of the utility of the series,
which reviewers without exception have
generously acknowledged.

During the year Dr. Stock has continued
to put in order the old files of the Division,
which have considerable value to the his-
torian and biographer. He has answered
many queries of historical nature sent to
the Institution, and he has given assistance
in many ways to several investigators. He
again served as chairman of the Committee
on Publications of the American Catholic
Historical Association, and on the Execu-
tive Council of that organization as one of
its past presidents. He lectured twice be-
fore the Charles Carroll Forum on "The
diplomatic relations between the United
States and the Vatican" — in Washington
April ii, and in Chicago April 18, 1943.

The general dislocation of the Institu-
tion's activities caused by the war has been
reflected in the progress toward publication
of the Guide to materials for American
history in the libraries and archives of
Paris. Volume II, devoted to the French
Foreign Office archives, was not published
as anticipated during 1942. It is hoped that
it will appear before the end of 1943. All
that prevents its appearance are the tech-
nical difficulties of printing and binding
a very large volume under wartime con-

ditions. Volume III, comprising notes on
the archives and libraries of the War Office,
the Ministry of Marine, the Comite de
l'Artillerie, the Comite Technique du
Genie, and the Service Hydrographique,
is complete in manuscript form. Publica-
tion must wait upon the prior demands
of other projects considered of more im-
mediate importance.

Although publication of this work has
been delayed, research for the remaining
volumes is continuing. Dr. Waldo G.
Leland, the general editor, is supervising
the work of Dr. John }. Meng on the
materials which have not yet been collated
and prepared for publication. The manu-
script of volume IV, which will list and
describe the various Actes du Pouvoir
Souverain relating to America, as well as
materials from the Archives Nationales
and a number of minor depositories, is
virtually complete. The plan of treatment
for volume V, the last, and one of the
most important volumes of the series, has
been decided upon, and preparation of the
manuscript will be well under way before
the end of the year. That volume will deal
with the centrally important Archives des
Colonies.

History of Science
George Sarton

Introduction to the history of science.
In the previous report the completion of
the first half of volume III was announced.
The second half (dealing with the second
half of the fourteenth century) is now
almost completed. Twenty-five chapters
out of twenty-eight are written, and the
manuscript of volume III will probably
be ready for submission to the Carnegie
Institution in September.

Editing of Isis. Volume 34 is in course
of publication. It is now printed in two
columns for the sake of economy. It has

DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

185

not yet been possible to renew the publica-
tion of Osiris, for which much material
has accumulated.

The proofreading and editing of his
are taken care of by Dr. Pogo, who also
conducts many minor investigations en-
tailed by the editing and by the Intro-
duction.

Publications
Margaret W. Harrison

In December 1942 the Institution pub-
lished Archaeological researches in the
northern Great Basin (Publication 538),
by L. S. Cressman, of the University of
Oregon, and others. Specialists in anthro-
pology, archaeology, paleontology, geology,
and climatology cooperated in this study
of the history of early man in south-central
Oregon.

Archaeological reconnaissance in Cam-
peche, Quintana Roo, and Peten (Publica-
tion 543) came from press in April 1943.
A detailed account of the work of four
expeditions — 1932, 1933, 1934, and 1938 —
the book is illustrated by 126 line-cut
drawings, 60 gravure plates, and 15 maps.
To facilitate cross reference, the subject
matter is arranged by structure under
each site. Karl Ruppert wrote the intro-
duction, summary, and description of
the ruins; the late John H. Denison, Jr.
recorded the epigraphy, which Mrs.
Harrison subsequently reorganized under
schematized headings for each stela in
numerical order at every site. A number of
Mr. Denison's photographs of the monu-
ments and rubbings were not published,
but they are available upon request to
the Peabody Museum of Harvard Uni-
versity.

In process of being printed is Ralph L.
Roys' The Indian background of colonial
Yucatan. Part I describes the country, the
people, and their way of life as the Span-

iards found them. Mr. Roys has adapted
much of the material from his manuscript
on the Xiu Chronicle (now deposited in
Peabody Museum), and presents it as part
II, a discussion of the cacique system in
Yucatan. This volume is the first in a
proposed series of historical studies on the
Maya area. The second, now ready for
press, has been produced jointly by Mr.
Roys and France V. Scholes. It considers
the history, ethnology, and linguistics of
the Chontal Indians of the Acalan-Tixchel
region in southwestern Campeche. The
Chontal text, the only known existing
document written in the Chontal lan-
guage, will be reproduced in facsimile, for
it is one of the most important sources for
Maya history and ethnology that has been
found in many years.

From the eighth volume of "Contribu-
tions to American Anthropology and
History," the first paper (no. 40), The
archaeology of southwestern Campeche, by
E. Wyllys Andrews, was preprinted in
February 1943. Explorations in the Mo-
tagua valley (no. 41), by A. L. Smith and
A. V. Kidder, and The astronomical tables
of the Maya (no. 42), by Maud W.
Makemson, of Vassar College, are ready
for final printing. The last report, Karl
Ruppert's The Mercado, Chichen Itza,
Yucatan (no. 43), is now being typed for
offset. The whole volume will be dis-
tributed in the fall of 1943.

Mrs. Harrison has edited most of the
manuscript submitted by Alfonso Villa R.
on The Maya of east central Quintana Roo.

Tatiana ProskouriakofiF is assembling her
drawings for an album of Maya architec-
ture and sculpture. The volume, to be
ready for publication by the end of 1943,
will contain a short introduction and 34
mechanically plotted perspective drawings
rendered in black-and-white wash. Each
plate is accompanied by a descriptive com-
ment and a pen-and-ink sketch showing

1 86

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

the degree o£ certainty in the restoration.
Sculptural details are represented in scratch
drawings on Rossboard.

The collection o£ "Notes on Middle
American Archaeology and Ethnology"
has been increased by fifteen numbers
during the year. The editor of the series,
J. Eric S. Thompson, contributed six
papers, Dr. Kidder three, and Dr. Halpern
one, all listed in the bibliography at the
end of this report. The remainder came
from specialists outside the Institution:
A new pottery style from the Department
of Piura, Peru (no. 8), by John Howland
Rowe, of the National University of Cuzco,
Peru; The payment of tribute in the Codex
Mendoza (no. 10) and A note on Aztec
chronology (no. n), by R. C. E. Long, of
Portarlington, Ireland; A reconnaissance
on I si a de Sacrificios, Veracruz, Mexico
(no. 14), by Wilfrido du Solier, of the
National Institute of Anthropology and
History, Mexico; and Notes on sculpture
and architecture at Tonala, Chiapas (no.
21), by Linton Satterthwaite, Jr., of Uni-
versity Museum, Philadelphia. An index

will be issued when enough papers have
been gathered to form a volume, but a list
of contents is supplied from time to time
while the volume is in progress.

Preparation of the typescript of volume
II of the Guide to materials for American
history in the libraries and archives of Paris
(Publication 392) is finished. Of its 1080
pages, "about half have been printed (by
offset) ; the rest will follow within a few
months. The compiler and editor, John J.
Meng, has concluded work on the manu-
script for volumes III and IV and is well
advanced in that for volume V, the last.
Volume I of the Guide (libraries) is sepa-
rately indexed. This and the remaining
volumes (archives) will be cumulatively
indexed when publication is completed.

In addition to editing and seeing through
press the afore-mentioned publications,
Mrs. Harrison has advised members of the
staff on details of presentation relative to
the text and illustrations of their forth-
coming reports, and has made minor re-
searches connected with the preparation
of their material.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

July i, 1942 — June 30, 1943

Adams, Eleanor B., and F. V. Scholes. Books
in New Mexico, 1598-1680. New Mexico
Hist. Rev., vol. 17, pp. 226-270 (1942).

Halpern, A. A theory of Maya ts-sounds. Car-
negie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical Research,
Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol. and
Ethnol., no. 13 (1942).

Kidder, A. V. Archaeological specimens from
Yucatan and Guatemala. Carnegie Inst.
Wash., Div. Historical Research, Notes on
Middle Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., no. 9
(1942).

Pottery from the Pacific slope of Guate-
mala. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical
Research, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol.
and Ethnol., no. 15 (1943).

Spindle whorls from Chichen Itza, Yu-
catan. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical

Research, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol.
and Ethnol., no. 16 (1943).
Meng, J. J. Notes and reviews. Catholic Hist.
Rev.

Reviews in Thought. Fordham Univ.

Quar.

Morley, S. G. Archaeological investigations of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington in
the Maya area of Middle America, during the
past twenty-eight years. Proc. Amer. Philos.
Soc, vol. 86, pp. 205-219 (1943).

Pogo, Alexander. Remarks on the lunar eclipse
of 1943 February 20. Texas Observers' Bull.,
no. 136, pp. 1-3 (1943).

Early and late Easter dates. Science,

vol. 97, p. 354 (1943).

— Uncommon Easter dates. Pop. Astron.,

vol. 51, pp. 254-256 (1943)-

DIVISION OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

187

Ruppert, Karl. Archaeological reconnaissance
in Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Peten.
Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 543 (1943).

Sarton, George. Preface to volume XXXIV. O
columns! Isis, vol. 34, pp. 3-4 (1942).

The sources of Joos van Ghistele's Voy-
age to the East (1481-85; princeps, Ghent,
1557). Isis, vol. 34, pp. 25-27 (1942).

Was Jeanne Barre the first woman who

travelled around the world (c. 1773) ? Isis,
vol. 34, p. 27 (1942).

The discovery of the circulation of the

blood. Isis, vol. 34, p. 29 (1942).

Sixty-second critical bibliography of the

history and philosophy of science (to April,
1942). Isis, vol. 34, pp. 49-94 (1942).

Second preface to volume XXXIV. Les-

quereux (1806-89). Isis, vol. 34, pp. 97-108
(1942).

Third preface to volume XXXIV. The

years "forty-three." Isis, vol. 34, pp. 193—

195 (i943)-

Remarks on the theory of temperaments.

With a German "temperament" text of c.
1480, edited by Erika von Erhardt-Siebold.
Isis, vol. 34, pp. 205-208 (1943).

Sixty-third critical bibliography of the

history and philosophy of science (to Octo-
ber, 1942). Isis, vol. 34, pp. 238-286

(i943)-

L'avenir de la science. Renaissance, vol.

1, pp. 218-237 (1943),
Scholes, F. V. See Adams, Eleanor B.
Stock, L. F. Notes and reviews. Catholic Hist.

Rev.
Tax, Sol. Ethnic relations in Guatemala. Amer-

ica indigena, vol. 2, pp. 43-48. Mexico
(1942).
Thompson, J. E. S. A coordination of the his-
tory of Chichen Itza with ceramic sequences
in central Mexico. Rev. mexicana de estudios
antropologicos, vol. 5, pp. 97-1 11. Mexico
(1941).

Las llamadas fachadas de Quetzalcouatl.

Proc. 27th Internat. Cong. Americanists
( x 939) 5 PP- 39 I ~400- Mexico (1943).

Observations on Glyph G of the lunar

series. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical
Research, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol.
and Ethnol., no. 7 (1942).

Representations of Tezcatlipoca at Chi-
chen Itza. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. His-
torical Research, Notes on Middle Amer.
Archaeol. and Ethnol., no. 12 (1942).

Some sculptures from southeastern Que-

zaltenango, Guatemala. Carnegie Inst. Wash.,
Div. .Historical Research, Notes on Middle
Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., no. 17 (1943).

The initial series of Stela 14, Piedras

Negras, Guatemala, and a date on Stela 19,
Naranjo, Guatemala. Carnegie Inst. Wash.,
Div. Historical Research, Notes on Middle
Amer. Archaeol. and Ethnol., no. 18 (1943).

Representations of Tlalchitonatiuh at

Chichen Itza, Yucatan, and at El Baul, Es-
cuintla. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. Historical
Research, Notes on Middle Amer. Archaeol.
and Ethnol., no. 19 (1943).

Maya epigraphy: directional glyphs in

counting. Carnegie Inst. Wash., Div. His-
torical Research, Notes on Middle Amer.
Archaeol. and Ethnol., no. 20 (1943).

SPECIAL PROJECTS: HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Marion E. Blake, Bradford, Vermont. Preparation of a monograph on ancient
Roman construction based on the material accumulated by the late Dr. Esther B.
Van Deman. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 38 to 41.)

Various demands due to war conditions in chapters 3, "Stone walls," and 5, "Arches

have delayed somewhat the completion of and vaults," which deal with many of the

the monograph dealing with ancient Roman same buildings. The enormous task of

construction. The work has advanced checking references throughout the entire

considerably, however, and the end is in study is well under way, and a bibliog-

sight. Chapter 1, "Introduction," has been raphy of authorities and abbreviations has

written; chapter 2, "Materials," has been been started. An index of places has been

completely reorganized to eliminate refer- compiled on cards, which will serve even-

ences to buildings later than Augustus tually as the basis of an analytical index

and shortened by cross references to later designed to make the monograph a means

chapters. Chapters 3, "Stone walls," and 6, of ready reference.

"Opus incertum, quasi-reticulatum, and Only three tasks remain virtually un-

reticulatum," have been expanded to give touched : the preface, the concluding chap-

a general survey of these types of construe- ter, and the illustrations, to which should

tion throughout Italy. Substantial progress perhaps be added the time-consuming task

has been made in eliminating repetition of retyping much of the manuscript.

189

PALEONTOLOGY, EARLY MAN, AND HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

John C. Merriam, President Emeritus, Carnegie Institution of Washington. (For pre-
vious reports see Year Books Nos. 20 to 41.)

The President Emeritus research report been included, so far as it is expressed in
for 1943 is organized on the plan used this region.

for previous reports from 1938— 1939 to The group of investigators concerned
1942, but differs from them in that a greater with work in the John Day area has corn-
percentage of the larger projects have been prised representatives from many of the
brought to the stage of final discussion, or principal institutions of the west coast
have been so organized that the work may region, and a number of students from
proceed satisfactorily under other auspices, leading agencies concerned with geological
The outstanding example of this type of and paleontological work in the eastern
treatment of materials appears in considera- universities and museums. With develop-
tion of problems relating to studies on ment of cooperative work among the in-
paleontological and geological history of dividuals and institutions represented, there
the John Day region of eastern Oregon, exists an important complex of researches

involving very many points of view, all of
Researches on the John Day Region of which are important individually, and es-
Oregon; with Discussion of Program pecially significant when considered in re-
lation to one another.

Results of the work of the writer in the
John Day region are recorded in the Pub-
lished papers and addresses of John Camp-
bell Merriam, being volumes I to IV in
Carnegie Institution Publication 500.

In the past year, specific attention has
been given to the desirability of either
bringing to conclusion certain phases of
work relating to technical researches which
can be taken up at any time, or planning
such a program as will make it possible to
carry these investigations forward through
the medium of other students now at work,
or who may desire to enter this field in the
future.

It has been assumed that there is still, in
the John Day region, a great wealth of
material for studies of large advantage to
science and to humanity broadly. Certain
of the technical studies may perhaps be

to Meet Future Needs of Research
and Educational Activities

In previous reports, beginning with
1938— 1939, there has been discussion of
the extensive series of correlated researches
directed toward attainment of an under-
standing of the story of geology and of the
history of life in the John Day region of
Oregon. The work of the writer devoted
to interpretation of the John Day region
began with an expedition into that area
in 1899, and has been carried on continu-
ously from that time until the present,
both through field expeditions and through
laboratory investigation. Beginning with
an effort to learn something of the spec-
tacular story of evolution of higher animals
in that region, the studies were extended
to include groups of lower animals without
backbones, as also the flora, the general

geology of the region, and certain aspects completed within a short time; others will

of petrography and mineralogy. In some interlock with investigations involving de-

of the later work, beginning investigation tailed work which should be carried on

of the story of early man in America has over extended periods. It is recognized

190

SPECIAL PROJECTS: HISTORICAL RESEARCH

191

that, though it is often possible to continue
a technical study indefinitely by accumula-
tion of additional materials, and though
such work has the definite value attach-
ing to fundamental realities of science, it
is also true that such material may be only
the bricks by use of which major structures
can be erected. On the other hand, since
general or philosophical studies represent in
large measure the conclusions toward
which scientific studies are directed, there
is presumably a responsibility resting upon
the writer of this report to make an effort
so to develop the values that are now
evident as to open the way for the largest
constructive use of the outstanding fea-
tures in this region.

The major factors relating to the John
Day program of the future may be con-
sidered under three heads:

1. The effort to safeguard continuance
of research activities in the John Day re-
gion, through setting up of an informal
organization to be known as John Day
Associates.

2. Activities relating to use of features of
the John Day region which may contrib-
ute materially toward education of the
people of the state in thinking on major
questions concerning the character and
significance of natural phenomena, and
which may also advance development of
thought on the meaning of these phe-
nomena in their relation to understanding
of human problems in the future. Of par-
ticular importance in this plan is the
preparation of clearly written publications
relating to features of special human
interest.

3. The setting up of a program by which
the natural features of principal interest
in the John Day region may be protected
for their highest use in development of
research and in education of the people,
through establishing a series of reservations
under the State Parks Office.

Commonly, research appears to move in
cycles, which tend to correspond rather
closely to the life periods of investigators
concerned. But it is believed that advance
in studies within the John Day region may
go forward through a period of not less
than one hundred years, and possibly reach
much farther. The planning of an in-
formal organization, to continue thinking
in the fields of research for which favor-
able materials are found in the John Day
region, is designed to promote continuity
of effort and to make more effective the
studies which may be undertaken. The
invitation includes those who have already
been concerned with these investigations
and are most familiar with the subjects
available for study. It is believed that the
method, which has been approved by the
Oregon State Board of Higher Education,
will aid in development of research in
many fields, and will facilitate synthesis
of materials. It is hoped that the collective
thinking of the group of investigators
known as John Day Associates may not
become so formal as to limit development
of research in any of the directions in
which work can be conducted to advantage.

The activities designed especially to ad-
vance education of the people are planned
to aid in bringing about contact with the
realities of nature in a manner tending to
stimulate self-education. It is believed that
this contact will promote initiation of
thought on the part of visitors such as may
lead to recognition of the power and move-
ment illustrated in the natural world, the
laws in accordance with which it develops,
and the principle of unity which holds the
features of nature together. It is hoped
that contact with the phenomena of nature
will lead to recognition of the fact that
we live in a dependable, or law-controlled,
universe in which advance or development
is a normal mode of action.

It is assumed, also, that there will ulti-

192

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

mately be appreciation of the fact that what
we know of history in the human group
shows that basic principles dominant in
development of other groups of organisms
have had in general a corresponding influ-
ence in our own history. It is also con-
sidered possible that evidence of the extent
to which so-called natural law has had an
important place in early human historical
development may lead to recognition of
influence of these principles in peculiarly
human relations, such as those involved in
social and political problems in the present
and future of mankind.

Preparation of a simple, carefully written
book calling attention to the things of
greatest interest in the John Day area
would have large value in interpreting to
the public the principal phases of reality
which we consider important. It is pos-
sible that, in preparation for actual use
or study of the area by visitors, a more
technical publication in the nature of a
guidebook might also be helpful.

Plans for safeguarding certain areas and
features in the John Day region most im-
portant in providing materials for research,
and opportunity for education, have been
under consideration for a number of years,
as noted in previous reports. Through the
careful thinking of Samuel H. Boardman,
Superintendent of State Parks, of Oregon,
effort has been made to see how the things
of greatest value could be protected and, at
the same time, made available for research
and educational use with a minimum
of disturbance of what would be considered
the natural activities for life in that region.
The Highway Commission of the State
of Oregon, the agency to which the state
parks organization is responsible, has ap-
proached discussion of this subject in a
sympathetic manner, and has proceeded in
an orderly fashion to secure the data needed
for carrying out such a program for state

park use as would fit into activities of these
organizations.

History and evolution of floras in
John Day formations, Ralph W. Chaney.
Among the researches concerning history
of life in the John Day region, one of the
most consistently constructive is that of
Dr. Ralph W. Chaney on the history of
plant life in its relation to the geological
story. The studies, carried on through
many years, have contributed a great
amount of information regarding types of
plants in these formations, their variation,
and their history through the formations
in which they occur. The story of life as
represented by plants has aided markedly
in our interpretation of geological succes-
sion and correlation, and in forming opin-
ion regarding changes of climate and other
physical conditions which have taken place
through the ages.

Dr. Chaney reports: .

"Continuing study of Tertiary floras
from the John Day Basin emphasizes their
significance as guides to understanding of
vegetation, both past and present. In no
other part of the continent does the record
so closely approximate completeness, for
recurrent volcanism during much of the
time provided ideal conditions for preser-
vation of plant materials in fine-textured
volcanic sediments, and flows of lava pro-
tected them from subsequent erosion.
Varied climate and topography favored
the development of rich and diversified
vegetation, changing from epoch to epoch
with a progressive trend toward wider
extremes of temperature and lessening rain-
fall. From the subtropical rain forests of
the Eocene and the temperate forests of the
Oligocene and Miocene, there have been
derived not only the hardy trees now
scattered along the John Day valley, but
many vegetation types spread widely over
North America. The impact of changing
topography and climate has brought new

PALEONTOLOGY, EARLY MAN, AND HISTORICAL GEOLOGY ^

plant populations to eastern Oregon, and Eustace L. Furlong. Through a period of

has scattered the rich elements of its earlier several years extensive studies have been

forests widely across the continent. made by Chester Stock and Eustace L.

"Current studies of the Mascall flora Furlong on the succession of life forms

are tending to confirm our earlier opinion in the John Day region, especially in the

that the Upper Miocene forest of the John John Day, the Mascall, and the Rattlesnake

Day Basin was made up of floral elements formation. The purpose of these investiga-

now widely distributed over the northern tions has been determination of the vertical

hemisphere. In the Blue Mountains of or time range of different types of life, with

Oregon and the Cascades to the west, a view to learning the extent to which

there are a number of trees whose Mio- genera and species have disappeared or have

cene ancestors lived in the areas now ren- changed into other forms by some process

dered semiarid by their rain shadows. The of evolution. The fact that these sedi-

present-day forest of valleys in the Coast ments may include many hundreds of feet

Ranges of California contains redwood, of strata, in which the lines of demarcation

alder, several species of oak, and numerous of layers or divisions are clearly marked,

other modern equivalents of Mascall spe- has suggested the possibility that careful

cies. Southward in the highlands of Mexico collecting would show the vertical as well

and Guatemala, whence they appear to as the horizontal or geographic range of

have migrated along the Cordillera in post- organic types.

Miocene time, there are trees which show Where careful collecting has been done
resemblances to Mascall species, mingled on a ser ies of well exposed formations by
with others which appear to have had an experienced collectors, it is not easy sub-
origin in the south. As has been men- sequently to increase the amount of mate-
tioned in previous reports, living forests r ial available unless new localities can be
of the Allegheny Plateau (Year Book No. discovered, since the formations weather
40, p. 183), in the lower drainage of the rather s i owly an ^ up to the present time,
Ohio River (Year Book No. 41, p. 142), f ew localities have been found at which
and elsewhere in the eastern United States f ossils were sufficiently abundant to war-
include a large number of trees whose mnt digging or mining for specimens,
ancestry seems readily traceable to the Under the circumstances, it has been neces-
Upper Miocene. sar y t0 awa i t tne accumulation of mate-

"In northeastern Asia, where the climate r ; a i s over a considerable period before
also is characterized by summer rainfall, attempting to draw final conclusions as
there are many points of similarity with t o the meaning of distribution as deter-
the composition of the Mascall flora. Our mined by field work,
study of this Miocene forest involves anal- j n or d er to bring together at this time
ysis of living conditions in these widely a s clear a statement as possible of the
separated areas, in an attempt to reach materials available for study on vertical dis-
an approximate understanding of the cli- tribution of organic types in the John Day
matic and topographic factors which con- section, Dr. Stock and Mr. Furlong have
trolled Tertiary vegetation, and which have carried out a review of the available mate-
been responsible for wide forest migrations rials as a matter of record. Mr. Furlong
in later geologic time." examined especially the collections at the

Significance of faunal zones represented University of California, where the mate-

by higher animals, Chester Stoc\ and rials accumulated in the first studies of
16

jp^ CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

this subject were deposited. He has com- upper Horsetown of California and in-
piled a list of sixty-nine collecting localities eludes species ranging more widely within
of the University of California Museum the Indio-Pacific province,
and thirty-five localities of the California "This fauna, which is confined to the
Institute of Technology, together with lower shale member of the Mitchell beds
names of the genera and species that have (for which the term Mitchell formation
thus far been recovered. It is to be as- will later be proposed), also includes a
sumed that, with time, other collectors and limited pelecypod and gastropod fauna,
other institutions will work over the region the former characterized by species of Tri-
which has been studied by the University gonia and Pholadomya.
of California, California Institute, and the "The Mitchell beds also include three
University of Oregon, so that the number other distinctive stratigraphic members,
of genera and species represented in these two being massive conglomerates sepa-
sections will be enlarged. The advance of rated by a shale, not unlike the lower or
knowledge in this particular subject has 'Meyers' shale member. These three upper-
great importance for general studies on most members have not yielded fossils,
evolution of organic types, as, also, for although extensive search has been made
interpretation of geological sequences and for them.

for correlation of deposits in regions so "The conglomerate members are not

sharply or widely separated that continuity distinguishable from the barren conglom-

of strata through mapping is not possible, erates outcropping along the John Day

Studies on the history and evolution of River at the base of the John Day forma-

lower animals in formations of the John tion below Picture Gorge.
Day area, E. L. Packard. The work of "Somewhat similar conglomerates occur

Dr. E. L. Packard concerning the history at Antone, but they contain, as do the as-

of lower animals without backbones has sociated sandstones and shales, a distinctive

contributed important data bearing on Upper Cretaceous fauna, comprising well

problems of geological interpretation, on known gastropods and pelecypods. That

questions touching changes of physical con- fauna occurs in restricted areas along the

ditions or environment, and on steps in northern face of the Ochoco fault scarp as

evolution of lower animals which have far east as South Fork of John Day, and

gone forward approximately parallel with along Beaver Creek on the southern slope

those of higher animals and of plants. of the Ochoco structural block."

Dr. Packard has now in process of final Studies on general geology of the John

organization manuscripts recording results Day region, John P. Buwalda. Circum-

of his work in recent years. The following stances incident to the war situation have

notes present certain details relating to the delayed publication of extensive reports

work which he has under way : on the geology of the John Day country

"During the past year the Cretaceous which have been worked out with great

invertebrate faunas from the Mitchell beds care and fine vision by Dr. Buwalda. It

of upper Horsetown age in the John Day is clearly desirable to take such a course

area have been checked again, and the as will lead to the best possible presenta-

descriptions rewritten. Over fifty species of tion of these results, rather than to allow,

ammonites are recognized, among which through hasty publication, the possibility

are a number of new forms. The am- of omissions which could be covered ade-

monite fauna has definite affinities with the quately later only by more or less frag-

PALEONTOLOGY, EARLY MAN, AND HISTORICAL GEOLOGY jq 5

mentary publications. Though continuous development of the great opportunity for

field researches are impossible at this time, studies in the history of life afforded by

cooperative thinking on the problems rep- collections obtained at Rancho La Brea in

resented has been carried on with other Los Angeles. These researches have in-

students. eluded consideration of classification and

Problem of early man in the John Day organization of the splendid collections at
region. The present world-wide disturb- the Los Angeles County Museum. One
ance has eliminated a large part of all of the most important advances has in-
research concerning fundamental prob- volved development of the collection of
lems relating to evolution of man over the mounted skeletons of Pleistocene birds
earth. With conclusion of the present from the asphalt deposits. These mount-
world war, however, some of the most ings show particularly well the size and
important problems to be faced will con- proportions of some of the most striking
cern interpretation of relations among raptorial birds, as well as of the extinct
nations, for understanding of which it is stork and wild turkey. Never before have
important to have a knowledge of the so many extinct birds been made available
evolutionary development and relation- in mounted form; thereby it is possible to
ships of human groups. increase the knowledge of these creatures

Researches on the history of early man, beyond the details of morphology acquired

carried out by Dr. L. S. Cressman of the through study of individual parts of the

University of Oregon in recent years, have skeleton. The success of this type of prepa-

made valuable contribution to our knowl- ration is due largely to the painstaking

edge of this subject. Especially significant efforts of the museum preparator, Eugene

is his paper on Archaeological researches J. Fischer. The materials for the mounted

in the northern Great Basin, recently pub- specimens were selected from the large col-

lished by the Carnegie Institution of Wash- lection by Dr. Hildegarde Howard. It is

ington. As this paper deals with important hoped that it may be possible to prepare

occurrences of remains in south-central a restoration of the large condor-like vul-

Oregon, there is inevitably inquiry as to ture (Teratornis merriamt).

whether the region of special interest con- Mr. Fischer has also just completed an

tributing data relating to early man in excellent mounted specimen of the extinct

Oregon might be expected to include at bison (Bison antiquus) from Rancho La

least some part of the John Day area. Up Brea. This represents one of the largest

to the present time little attention has been individuals of the Bovidae to be recorded

given to this possibility, but Dr. Cressman from the asphalt. A paper describing this

has carried out reconnaissance studies specimen is now being prepared by Dr.

which gave very favorable results and is Stock.

of the opinion that the John Day region

• *. r ■ i 4 «. -„i c • «- «. a Researches on Animals Contributing

might furnish materials or interest and

■ . _ Especially Important Data Bearing
importance.

upon the Significance of

Development of Research on the Evolution

Deposits of Fossil Remains Through all the reports which have been

at Rancho La Brea published on this series of paleontological

During the past year Dr. Chester Stock and historical researches there has been

has given continued attention to further emphasis upon significance of certain

I9 6 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

phases of the paleontological record which velopment of characters which have im-
have made particularly important contri- portance for life in this particular group,
bution toward understanding the mode of and that there is much information bear-
operation of evolution. Attention has been ing upon the whole problem of method
called especially to work done upon a few and ultimate result of evolution which
groups in which evidences of evolution must be studied if we are to learn the real
not only are strongly marked, but have nature of this process, and also ultimately
been interpreted more easily than is true to know whether changes of this sort may
in certain other divisions of the organic be induced through influence of human
world. In the study of two widely differ- intelligence.

ent groups of higher animals, data relat- The work of Mr. Furlong on the ante-

ing to history and development have been lopes deals with a type of life in which the

accumulated which seem to have excep- specialization is totally different from that

tional interest and importance. One of in the whales, and in which it is perhaps

these phases of work involves the study true that the aspects of specialization are

by Dr. Remington Kellogg, of the U. S. more sharply localized in the body. At the

National Museum, on evolution or speciali- same time, one must recognize that there

zation of the members of the whale group, is a high degree of correlation among the

The other series of studies is that by Mr. various aspects of the specialization.
Eustace L. Furlong, of the California In-

stitute of Technology, on the history of Investigation of Major Problems in
certain groups of antelopes. The fact that Geology and Paleontology of
both the whales and the antelopes are THE Grand Canyon
known as highly specialized animals has In planning a program of interpreta-
relation to the kind of evidence of evolu- tion covering major features of the Grand
tion furnished. Whatever significance there Canyon National Park some years ago,
be in other important aspects of the story effort was made to select those questions
of life, there can be no doubt that scientific which seemed of exceptional importance,
interest stresses the evidence of contin- and regarding which relatively little had
ued changes through the ages by means been known. Investigation of certain of
of which more highly specialized and, in these problems was carried out in con-
some cases, more highly effective types of siderable part by Edwin D. McKee, then
life come into being. naturalist at the Grand Canyon on the
The work of Dr. Kellogg on the whales staff of the National Park Service. Not
presents one of the most spectacular series only has the material obtained in his studies
of changes that we know in the whole contributed much toward understanding
range of history of organisms. The fact the broader outlines of history in this area,
that these changes have led toward the but, in general, it has appeared that the
development of animals specialized for investigation of each of these problems has
aquatic life does not mean that the result related itself in some measure to work on
of the changes is less important than would other subjects, so that his researches have
be the case if they were leading toward presented a connected story of great im-
very high development of a brain system portance in interpretation of major values
or of intelligence. A point of great sig- at the Grand Canyon,
nificance is that the series of steps moves One phase of Mr. McKee's work having
rapidly and quite directly toward the de- exceptional interest involves studies made

PALEONTOLOGY, EARLY MAN, AND HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

197

on conditions and forces now operating, that great importance attaches to effort

with a view to interpreting major phe- directed toward study of methods and con-

nomena represented in geological history elusions of science which contribute toward

of the Grand Canyon region. For example, understanding the rapidly growing num-

to attain understanding of certain aspects ber of complicated problems that have to

of what appeared to be a delta formation, do with world questions.

he made studies on the delta of the Colo- Recent publication of a book on the

rado River; these have thrown light on influence of nature in human experience

the Grand Canyon formation, giving ad- has emphasized certain aspects of natural

ditional evidence of its vast antiquity. law the interpretation of which has had

A further illustration of this method is important place in the thought of the
found in recent studies by Mr. McKee writer. These ideas have been expressed
at the Museum of Northern Arizona, re- to some extent in all the President Emeritus
garding the formation of sand dunes. He research reports up to the present time,
has been able, by use of wind tunnels and So, in the report of 1 938-1 939 attention
a fan, to reproduce types of sand dunes, was called to the importance of examining
including the minor structures which seem evidence suggesting that contributions of
to be represented in the geological forma- science may come to have large value in
tions. By comparing these results with formulation of a philosophy with wide-
study of the Coconino formation in the reaching implications for human life. At
Grand Canyon, it has been possible to that time there was suggested for con-
explain many features that have heretofore sideration the possibility that a philosophy
been very puzzling. More than this, Mr. based upon expression of natural law might
McKee has been making studies on various furnish principles of value in a restate-
types of lizard footprints found in the ment of religion or ethics, such as would
dune sand in the Grand Canyon forma- be acceptable to a large percentage of
tions. thinking people. It was also noted that

A monograph on the Grand Canyon re-study of materials available might indi-
Cambrian, by Mr. McKee and Charles E. cate that possibly the greatest contribution
Resser, of the U. S. National Museum, of science concerns its influence in de-
has been approved for publication by the termining our attitudes of mind and our
Carnegie Institution of Washington. aspirations. Reference was also made to

the idea that materials of research which

Expression of Natural Law as Founda- haye been tested sufficiently to establish

tion of .belief t j ie | r rea Ji t y furnish exceptionally valuable

Assuming that objectives of President foundations for the building of human

Emeritus research may have largest im- beliefs, and that, to the extent to which

portance in those phases of study involv- science demands a basis of reality for what

ing attainment of conclusions relating to is used in development of ideas, its meth-

fundamental ideas, it is natural that ods may properly serve as pattern in study

through this period of work there has of specifically human problems,

been continuous interest in contributions An interesting aspect of the relation be-

of science having special significance in tween study of nature and development in

consideration of human problems. With beliefs presents itself in the possible influ-

accumulation of data bearing upon this ence of certain points of view upon the rela-

subject, it has seemed increasingly clear tion between science and philosophic or re-

198

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

ligious beliefs. If it be demonstrated that
with increasing knowledge of the nature
of the world about us we may develop
better-founded and humanly more clearly
adequate ideas regarding fundamental be-
liefs, then there would be reason for press-
ing our fundamental study of nature by
more intensive scientific research. So, it
may appear that, although for a consider-
able period science was assumed to exert a
destructive influence upon religious and
other fundamental beliefs, the real situa-
tion would be one in which the highest
advance of science would be recognized as
contributing toward improvement of our
point of view or of our beliefs. There
would thus be attained a stage at which
the advance of science, philosophy, and
fundamental beliefs would be closely
linked, and so intimately related that they
should go forward as one great movement.

Addresses by Dr. Merriam

"Man's place in nature," address before
class in anthropology, University of Ore-
gon, Eugene, Oregon, October 12, 1942.

"Human values of the redwoods," Audu-
bon Society, Los Angeles, California,
March 1943.

"Relation between objectives of Phi Beta
Kappa and Sigma Xi," joint meeting of
Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi, University
of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, May 15, 1943.

"Our widening view of nature apprecia-
tion," Geological Society of Salem, Salem,
Oregon, May 20, 1943.

"Human meaning of earth history as
illustrated by striking features of Oregon,"
Geologists of the Oregon Country, Port-
land, Oregon, May 28, 1943.

"Major conceptions of research on mean-
ing of the redwoods," message of the Presi-
dent to the Save-the-Redwoods League,
San Francisco, California, August 24, 1943.

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Sons (1943).
The redwoods and the war. Living

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PUBLICATIONS OF THE INSTITUTION

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524. Papers from Tortugas Laboratory, volume
XXXIII. Octavo, iii+195 pages, 7 plates,
73 text figures.

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IV, V. See Year Book No. 41 (1941-1942).

VI. Davis, John H., Jr. The ecology of the

vegetation and topography of the Sand

Keys of Florida. Pages 1 13-195, 7

plates, 13 text figures.

527. Gentry, Howard Scott. Rio Mayo plants:
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538. Cressman, L. S., with the collaboration of
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541. Contributions to Embryology, volume XXX.
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188. Forbes, Thomas R. On the fate of the
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189. Martinez-Esteve, Pedro. Observations
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190. Lynn, W. Gardner. The embryology
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191. Burns, Robert K., Jr. The origin and
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192. Corner, George W. The fate of the
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193. Rossman, I. On the lipin and pigment
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194. Hartman, Carl G. Further attempts
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tropes in the adult rhesus monkey.
Pages 111-126, 2 plates.

195. Cuajunco, Fidel. Development of the
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196. Hines, Marion. The development and
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197. Streeter, George L. Developmental
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544. Jacobs, Woodrow C, and Katherine B.
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547. Thomson, Andrew. Upper-wind observa-
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CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

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550. Martin, Emmett. Studies of evaporation
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551. Contributions to Paleontology. Octavo.

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555. Biological results of the last cruise of the
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Pages 15-27, 12 figures.

Treadwell, Aaron L. Polychaetous anne-
lids. Pages 29-59, 46 figures, 4 maps.

Tattersall, W. M. The mysids. Pages 61-
72, 5 figures.

Maloney, James O. The isopods. Pages

73-75-
Barber, Harry G. The Halobates. Pages

77-84, 1 figure.
Wetmore, Alexander. List of birds. Pages

85-87.
Miscellaneous determinations. Pages 89-92.

de Laubenfels, M. W., The sponge.

Clark, Austin H., The echinoderms.

Chapin, E. A., and others, The insects

and mites. Hopkins, Hoyt S., The

pyrosomids. Cochran, Doris M., The

lizard.

PUBLICATION BY THE PRESIDENT OF
THE INSTITUTION

Bush, Vannevar. Research and the war effort.
Electrical Engineering, vol. 62, no. 3, pp.
96-102 (1943)-

INDEX

Abelson, Philip H., studies in atomic physics, vii, 42
Aboriginal American History, Section of, viii. See also

archaeology; social anthropology
Abreu, Raul Pavon, studies in archaeology, 178
Adams, Eleanor B., studies in post-Columbian Ameri-
can history, viii, 183

publication by, 186
Adams, Leason H., studies in geophysics, vii, 4, 7

report of Director of Geophysical Laboratory, 27-29
Adams, R. V., Jr., publication by, 68
Adams, Walter S., studies in stellar spectroscopy, vii,

7, 3> M> 15
publications by, 19-20, 56

report of Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-
Ray Investigations, 61-62
report of Director of Mount Wilson Observatory,

3-22
administration, offices of, x
Agassiz, Alexander, vi, xii
anatomy, comparative, studies in, 11 6-1 18. See also

embryology
Anderson, Carl D., studies on cosmic rays, 66-68
Anderson, John A., laboratory investigations (Mount

Wilson), vii, 3
Andrews, E. Wyllys, studies in archaeology, 177, 183

publication by, 185, 199
anthropology, studies in, 126, 157-160, 1 80-1 81. See

also archaeology; paleontology
archaeology, studies in, 8, 177-180, 189. See also

paleontology
Aronson, Casper J., studies in terrestrial magnetism, vii
astronomy, vii, xi, 7, 3-25. See also Mount Wilson

Observatory
Committee on, v
Atkinson, R. d'E., studies in astronomy, 4
atomic physics, studies in, 33, 42
Atomic -Physics Observatory, 42
Auditing Committee, v, xxii

report of, xix
Auditors, Report of, xix, xxi, xxvi— xxxii
Ault, J. P., studies in oceanography, 54
Axelrod, Daniel I., studies in paleobotany, 103

Baade, Walter, studies in stellar and nebular photom-
etry and spectroscopy, vii, 3, 8, 16, 17

publications by, 20
Babcock, Ernest B., studies in genetics, ix
Babcock, Harold D., studies in solar physics, vii, 3, 7,
8, 18

publications by, 20
Baker, Frank C, publication by, 199
Baldwin, George J., vi
Banta, A. M., studies in genetics, 155
Barber, Harry G., publication by, 54, 200
Barbour, Thomas, v, xix
Barksdale, Julian D., studies in geophysics, 28

publication by, 29

Bartels, J., publication by, 56
Bates, R. W., publication by, 160
Bauer, Ailene J., x
Bauer, Louis A., vii
Bell, James F., v, xix

Benedetto, F. A., studies on cosmic rays, 63
Benedict, Francis G., viii
Bensley, E. H., studies in nutrition, 164
Berkner, Lloyd V., studies in terrestrial magnetism,
vii, 42
publication by, 56
Berry, Edward B., studies on cosmic rays, 63

publication by, 64
Biesecker, Earle B., x
Billings, John S., vi, xii, xiii
biochemical investigations, 7, 72-73, 75-91. See also

cyclotron; embryology; genetics
biological sciences, viii, xi, 6-y, 8, 71-175. See also
paleontology
Committee on, v
biophysical investigations, 123-124. See also cyclotron;

gene
Blake, Marion E., studies in archaeology, ix, 189
Blakeslee, Albert F., studies in genetics, viii, ix
Bliss, Robert Woods, v, xix
Boggs, S. H., studies in archaeology, 178
Boricius, William, studies in astronomy, 4
Botanical Research, Department of, viii. See also

Plant Biology, Division of
botany, see plant biology; maize genetics; polyploidy

investigations
Bowles, Edward L., studies in physics, ix
Boyce, Joseph C, studies in physics, ix
Bradford, Lindsay, v, xix
Bradshaw, S. L., studies in linguistics, 177
Brainerd, G. W., studies in archaeology, 177
Bramhall, E. H., studies in terrestrial magnetism, ix,

52
Brayton, Ada M., studies in stellar spectroscopy, 3
Brehme, K. S., publication by, 160
Breit, G., studies in physics, ix
Brode, R. B., studies in physics, 61
Brookings, Robert S., vi

Brouwer, Dirk, studies in astronomy, ix, 23
Bryson, V., studies in mouse genetics, 125, 126-129
Burd, Sylvia, studies in stellar and nebular spectros-
copy, 3
Burgh, Robert F., studies in archaeology, 179
Burlew, John S., studies in geophysics, vii
Burns, Robert K., Jr., studies in embryology, viii,
109, no, III
publications by, 120, 199
Bursar, Office of the, x

Burwell, Cora G., studies in stellar spectroscopy, 3, 12
Bush, Vannevar, v, x, xix, xxii
publication by, 200
Report of the President, 1-10
Buwalda, John P., studies in geology and paleontology,
ix, 194

201

202

INDEX

Cadwalader, John L., vi, xii
Callaway, Samuel, x

Campbell, Arthur Shackleton, publication by, 54, 59
Campbell, William W., vi

Carlson, J. Gordon, studies on the gene, 123, 140
Carnegie, the, 54, 59, 199, 200
Carnegie, Andrew, xi, xiii

Carnegie Corporation of New York, xi, 5, 6, 108
Carpenter, Thorne M., studies in nutrition, viii, 8,
164, 165

publications by, 165

report of Director of Nutrition Laboratory, 163-165
Carty, John J., vi

Castle, W. E., studies in biology, ix, 167
Chamberlain, Robert S., studies in post-Columbian

American history, viii, 177, 183
Chaney, Ralph W., studies in paleobotany, ix, 74, 103,

192
Chapin, E. A., publication by, 54, 200
Chapman, S., publications by, 57
chemistry, see biochemical investigations; geophysics
Chernosky, Edwin J., observatory work (terrestrial

magnetism), 50
Christie, William H., studies in stellar spectroscopy,
vii, 3

publication by, 20
Clark, Austin H., publication by, 54, 200
Clarke, Katherine B., publication by, 54, 59, 199
Clausen, Jens C, studies in experimental taxonomy,

viii, 91-100
Cochran, Doris M., publication by, 54, 200
Coffeen, Mary F., studies in solar physics, 3, 7, 18

publication by, 20
Cole, Whitefoord R., vi
College (Alaska) Observatory, 31, 33, 41, 44, 45,

51-52
Compton, A. H., studies in physics, ix, 61, 62, 63
Conger, Paul S., studies in biology, ix, 168-169

publication by, 199
Connor, Elizabeth, 3

publication by, 20
Corner, George W., studies in embryology, viii, 6,
112, 113, 114

publications by, 1 20-1 21, 199

report of Director of Department of Embryology,
105-122
Coropatchinsky, V., studies in nutrition, viii, 164
Cosmic-Ray Investigations, Committee on Coordina-
tion of, 61-62
cosmic rays, studies on, 61—69. See also terrestrial

magnetism
Cowie, D. B., biophysical investigations, 33, 42

publications by, 57, 58
Cressman, L. S., studies in archaeology, 195

publication by, 185, 199
Cuajunco, Fidel, studies on the nervous system, 119

publication by, 121, 199
cyclotron, 6, 33, 42

cytology, studies in, 116. See also experimental
taxonomy; genetics

Davenport, Charles B., viii

Davidson, Harriet, polyploidy investigations, 153-157

Davis, Dorothy N., studies in stellar spectroscopy, 3,

13, 14
publication by, 20

Davis, John H., Jr., publication by, 199

Day, Arthur L., vii

de Benedetti, Sergio, studies on cosmic rays, 64

publications by, 64
Deeds, W. E., publication by, 68
Delano, Frederic A., v, xix, xxii, 4
de Laubenfels, M. W., publication by, 54, 200
Demerec, Milislav, studies on the gene, viii, 7, 123,
124, I39-M7

publications by, 160, 161

report of Director of Department of Genetics, 123-
161
Denison, John H., Jr., publication by, 185, 199
desert investigations, 74, 100-103
Desert Laboratory, viii. See also Plant Biology,

Division of
diatoms, studies on, 7, 72, 75-82, 168-169
Dill, D. B., studies in nutrition, 164
Dillon, Theodore H., x, 5
Dimick, John, studies in archaeology, 178
Dobzhansky, Th., studies in genetics, ix
Dodge, Cleveland H., vi, xii
Dodge, William E., vi
Dorf, Erling, studies in paleobotany, 103

publication by, 104
Dowdy, A. H., publication by, 57
Drury, Newton B., study of primitive areas, ix
DuBillier, B., publication by, 57
Duncan, John C, studies in astronomy, 4
Dunham, Theodore, Jr., studies in stellar spectroscopy,
vii, 3

early man, see archaeology; paleontology

ecology, viii. See also desert investigations; experi-
mental taxonomy

Edwards, H. T., studies in nutrition, 164

Elton, Charles, studies in climatology, ix

Embryology, Department of, viii, 6, 105-122, 169
report of Director of Department of, 105-122

embryology, studies in, 6, 105-122, 169-170

Emerson, Robert, publication by, 104

endocrine studies, 7, 125-126, 129-139. See also
reproductive organs and their hormones

England, Joseph L., studies in geophysics, vii

Ennis, C. C, studies in physical oceanography, 54

ethnology, see social anthropology

Eugenics Record Office, viii. See also Genetics,
Department of

Evans, Robley D., studies in nutrition, 163, 164

Executive Committee, v, xi, 3
Report of the, xix, xxi-xxv

Experimental Evolution, Station for, viii. See also
Genetics, Department of

experimental taxonomy, studies in, 7, 72, 73-74, 91-
100

Fano, Ugo, studies on the gene, viii, 123, 125, 139-

147
publications by, 160

Farrell, M. W., publication by, 57

Fenner, Charles P., vi

Ferguson, Homer L., v, xix

Finance Committee, v, xxi, xxii, 6

report of, xix

Fitzsimmons, Roy G., studies in terrestrial magnetism,

34> 56

INDEX

203

Fleming, John A., studies in terrestrial magnetism,
vii, 7, 34, 37, 45, 54
publications by, 56, 57

report of Committee on Coordination of Cosmic -
• Ray Investigations, 61-62
report of Director of Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism, 31-59
Flexner, Louis B., physicochemical studies (embryol-
ogy), viii, 105
Flexner, Simon, vi

Forbes, Thomas R., studies on reproductive organs
and their hormones, in, 114, 115
publications by, 121, 199
Forbes, W. Cameron, v, xix, xxii
Forbush, Scott E., studies on cosmic rays, vii, 61,
62-63
publication by, 63
Frew, William N., vi, xii

Furlong, Eustace L., studies in paleontology, 193, 196
publication by, 200

Gage, Lyman J., vi, xii

Gamow, G., studies in physics, ix

Gay, Helen, studies on the gene, 139-147

Gellhorn, Alfred, physicochemical studies (embryol-
ogy), 105

gene, studies on, 7, 124-125, 139-147

Genetics, Department of, viii, 7, 1 23-1 61
report of Director of Department of, 1 23-1 61

genetics, studies in, 7, 1 23-1 61, 167, 1 71-174. See
also experimental taxonomy

Gentry, Howard Scott, desert investigations, 103
publication by, 104, 199

geology, see geophysics; paleobotany; paleontology

geomagnetic investigations, 31-32, 34-37. See also
terrestrial magnetism

Geophysical Laboratory, vii, 3, 7, 27-29
report of Director of, 27-29

geophysics, studies in, 7, 27-29. See also terrestrial
magnetism

George, W. C, studies in embryology, 109
publication by, 121, 199

Gibson, Ralph E., studies in geophysics, vii

Giesecke, Albert A., Jr., observatory work (terrestrial
magnetism), 50

GifTord, Walter S., v, xix, xxii

Gilbert, Cass, vi

Gilbert, Walter M., x

Gillett, Frederick H., vi

Gillin, John P., studies in social anthropology, 181

Gilman, Daniel Coit, vi, xii, xiii

Ginsburg, N., studies on reproductive organs and
their hormones, 114
publication by, 121

Gish, Oliver H., studies in terrestrial electricity, vii,
37, 38, 40, 64
publication by, 57

Goranson, Roy W., studies in geophysics, vii

Goubaud Carrera, Antonio, studies in social anthropol-
ogy, 181

Graham, Herbert W., publications by, 54, 59, 200

Green, George K., studies in atomic physics, vii, 42

Green, J. W., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 33, 34,

43, 56
Greig, Joseph W., studies in geophysics, vii
Gucker, Frank T., Jr., studies in chemistry, ix
Gunn, Ross, studies in terrestrial magnetism, ix

Hafstad, Lawrence R., studies in atomic physics, vii,

42
Hale, George E., vii
Halpern, A. M., studies in linguistics, 177

publication by, 186
Hansen, Henry P., publication by, 199
Hardin, Garrett J., biochemical investigations, viii,
75-91

publication by, 104
Harradon, H. D., 55, 56

publications by, 57, 58
Harrison, Margaret W., 185-186
Hartman, Carl G., studies on reproductive organs and
their hormones, 112, 116, 118

publications by, 121, 199
Hartung, Marguerite, studies in experimental taxon-
omy, 99
Hay, John, vi, xii, xiii
Heard, O. O., 119

publication by, 121
Heizer, Robert F., publication by, 199
Hendrix, W. C, studies in physical oceanography, 54,

56
Herrick, Myron T., vi
Hertig, Arthur T., studies in embryology, ix, 105,

108, 120, 169-170
publications by, 170

Hess, Victor F., studies in physics, ix, 37, 61, 63-64

publications by, 64
Heuser, Chester H., studies in embryology, viii, 108,

109, 119
publication by, 121

Hewitt, Abram S., vi

Heydenburg, Norman P., studies in atomic physics,

vii, 42
Hickox, Joseph, studies in solar physics, vii, 3, 5
Hiesey, William M., studies in experimental taxonomy,

viii, 91-100
Higginson, Henry L., vi, xii
Hinckley, L. C, desert investigations, 100
Hines, Marion, studies on the nervous system, 118,

119

publication by, 121, 199

historical research, viii, xi, 8, 177-198

Committee on, v
Historical Research, Department of, viii. See also

Historical Research, Division of
Historical Research, Division of, viii, 4, 5, 8, 177-
187

report of Chairman of Division of, 177-187
history of the Maya area, studies in, 8, 1 81-183
History of Science, Section of the, viii
history of science, studies in, 184-185
Hitchcock, Ethan A., vi, xii
Hitchcock, Henry, vi

Hoge, Edison, studies in solar physics, vii, 3, 5
Hollaender, A., studies in genetics, ix, 123, 124, 125,

140, 141, 146
Hollander, W. F., endocrine studies, 125, 129-139

publications by, 160, 161
Holmberg, Erik, publications by, 25
Hoover, Herbert, v, xix
Hopkins, Hoyt S., publication by, 54, 200
hormones, see endocrine studies; reproductive organs

and their hormones
Howe, William Wirt, vi, xii

204

INDEX

Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, 31, 33, 34, 35, 38,

41, 44, 45, 48-51, 61, 62, 63
Hubble, Edwin P., studies in nebular photography,

photometry, and spectroscopy, vii, 3, 17
publications by, 20
Huff, Ruth, studies in astronomy, 23
Humason, Milton L., studies in stellar and nebular

spectroscopy, vii, 3, 13, 16, 17
publications by, 20
Hutchinson, Charles L., vi, xii

Ingerson, Earl, studies in geophysics, vii, 28-29

publications by, 29
Investment Office, x

ionosphere, studies on, 31-32, 33, 41-42
Irvine, J. W., Jr., studies in nutrition, 164

Jacobs, Woodrow C, publication by, 54, 59, 199

Jameson, J. Franklin, viii

Janssen, Edith M., studies in astronomy, 24

Jeans, James, studies in astronomy, 4

Jessup, Walter A., v, xxii

Jewett, Frank B., v, xix, 4

Johnson, Ellis A., studies in terrestrial magnetism, vii

Johnson, Thomas H., studies in physics, ix, 62, 64-65

publications by, 65
Johnston, Henry F., studies in terrestrial magnetism,

vh, 34, 35, 36, 44
publications by, 57
Johnston, I. M., desert investigations, 100, 101

publication by, 104
Jones, Mark W., observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism), vii, 50
publication by, 57
Josephs, Devereux, x

Joslin, Elliott P., studies in nutrition, ix, 163
Joy, Alfred H., studies in stellar spectroscopy, vii, 3,
12, 13
publications by, 20
Joyner, Mary, see Seares, Mary Joyner

Karr, Earl, publication by, 21

Katz, Leon, studies on cosmic rays, 68

publication by, 68
Kaufmann, Berwind P., studies on the gene, viii,
123, 125, 139-147
publications by, 160
Keck, David D., studies in experimental taxonomy,

viii, 91—100
Keenan, P. C, studies in astronomy, 25
Kellogg, Remington, studies in paleontology, ix, 196
Kidder, Alfred V., studies in archaeology, viii, 8, 177
publications by, 185, 186, 199
report of Chairman of Division of Historical Re-
search, 177-187
King, Arthur S., laboratory investigations (Mount
Wilson), vii, 3, 4, 18
publications by, 20
King, Helen Dean, studies in genetics, 167
King, Robert B., laboratory investigations (Mount

Wilson), vii, 3
Kistiakowski, George B., studies in chemistry, ix
Korff, S. A., studies in physics, ix, 62, 65-66

Korsch, B., publication by, 161
Kracek, Frank C, studies in geophysics, vii
Kupferberg, K., studies on cosmic rays, 66
Kupferberg, M., studies on cosmic rays, 66

Laanes, T., studies in mouse genetics, 126-129

publication by, 160
Lahr, E. L., endocrine studies, 129-139

publication by, 160
Land, Gustav, studies in astronomy, 23
Land Magnetic Survey, 43—44

Lange, Isabelle, studies in terrestrial magnetism, 34,
35, 61, 62-63

publication by, 63
Langley, Samuel P., vi, xii

Lawrence, William E., studies in ecology, 99-100
Ledig, Paul G., observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism), vii, 50, 62

publications by, 57, 58
Lee, George, studies in nutrition, 164
Lee, Robert C, studies in nutrition, viii, 164-165

publication by, 165
Leland, Waldo G., studies in United States history, 184
leukemia, see mouse genetics
Lewis, Charlton M., publication by, 104
Lewis, Margaret R., studies in embryology, viii
Lewis, Warren H., studies in cytology, 116

publication by, 121
Lhuillier, Alberto Ruz, studies in archaeology, 178
Lindbergh, Charles A., vi
Lindsay, William, vi, xii
Lingebach, J. Stanley, x
Lodge, Henry Cabot, vi
Loeffler, Orville H., studies in geophysics, vii
Long, R. C. E., publication by, 186
Longyear, J. M., studies in archaeology, 177
Loomis, Alfred L., v, 4
Lopez de Llergo, Rita, studies in social anthropology,

180
Lorimier, A. A. de, publications by, 58
Low, Seth, vi, xii

Lowe, E. A., studies in paleography, ix
Lowen, A. Louise, studies on stellar motions and

spectroscopy, 3
Lynn, W. Gardner, studies in embryology, 109

publication by, 121, 199

McClintock, Barbara, studies in maize genetics, viii,
7, 124, 148-152
publication by, 160
MacDowell, Edwin C, studies in mouse genetics,
viii, 7, 123, 125, 126-129
publication by, 160
MacGinitie, Harry D., studies in paleobotany, 103
McKee, Edwin D., studies in geology and paleon-
tology, ix, 196
McLaughlin, Andrew C, viii
McNish, Alvin G., studies in terrestrial magnetism,

vii, 34, 44
publication by, 58

MacVeagh, Wayne, vi, xii

magnetism, see atomic physics; geomagnetic investi-
gations; solar research

maize genetics, studies in, 7, 124, 148-152

INDEX

205

Makemson, Maud W., publication by, 185, 199
Mall, Franklin P., viii, 107
Maloney, James O., publication by, 54, 200
Manning, Winston M., biochemical investigations,
viii, 75-91

publications by, 104
Marinelli, L. D., studies on the gene, 125, 143, 144

publication by, 160
Martin, Emmett V., viii

publication by, 104, 200
Martmez-Esteve, Pedro, studies on reproductive or-
gans and their hormones, 112

publication by, 121, 199
Marvin, H. N., endocrine studies, 130

publication by, 160
Maya research, see anthropology; archaeology; history

of Maya area
Medical Research, Committee on, 4, 6
Mellon, Andrew J., vi

Meng, John J., studies in United States history, 183-
184, 186

publications by, 186
Merriam, John Campbell, vi

studies in paleontology, early man, and historical
geology, 190-198

publications by, 198
Merrill, Paul W., studies in stellar spectroscopy, vii,
3, 12, 13, 14

publications by, 20
Merwin, Herbert E., studies in geophysics, vii
Meyer, Robert C, studies in atomic physics, vii, 42
Miller, R. A., endocrine studies, 129-139

publications by, 160
Miller, Roswell, v, xix, 4
Millikan, Robert A., studies in physics, ix, 62, 66-68

publications by, 68
Mills, Darius O., vi, xii
Milner, Harold W., biochemical investigations, viii,

75-91
Minkowski, Rudolph, studies in stellar and nebular
spectroscopy, vii, 3, 8, 15, 16

publications by, 20
Mitchell, S. A., studies in astronomy, ix, 4, 23-25
Mitchell, S. Weir, vi, xii, xiii
Moberg, E. G., studies in oceanography, 54
Monroe, Parker, x
Montague, Andrew J., vi
Moore, Charlotte E., publications by, 20. See also

Sitterly, Mrs. B. W.
Morey, George W., studies in geophysics, vii, 28-29

publications by, 29
Morgan, Henry S., v, 4

Morgan, L. V., studies in genetics, 171— 174
Morgan, T. H., studies in biology, ix, 171-174
Morley, Sylvanus G., studies in archaeology, viii, 177,

r 7. 8 ,
publication by, 186

Morris, Earl H., studies in archaeology, viii, 177, 179-

180

Morrow, William W., vi, xii

Mount Wilson Observatory, vii, 3, y, 3-22, 25

report of Director of, 3-22
mouse genetics, studies in, 7, 125, 126-129
Mudd, Seeley G., v
Mulders, Elizabeth S., studies in solar physics, 3

publications by, 21

National Defense Research Committee, 4, 27, 34
nebulae and novae, studies on, 7, 3, 15-18
Neddermeyer, Seth, studies on cosmic rays, 68
Neher, H. Victor, studies on cosmic rays, 66

publications by, 68
nervous system, studies on, 6, 105, 11 8-1 19
Newhouse, Walter H., studies in geophysics, ix
Nicholson, Seth B., studies in solar physics, vii, 3, 5, 8

publications by, 21
Nielsen, Carl E., studies on cosmic rays, 62, 68-69

publications by, 69
Norman, I. G., observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism), 48
nuclear physics, see atomic physics
nutrition, studies in, 8, 163-165
Nutrition Laboratory, viii, 8, 163-165

report of Director of, 163-165
Nye, William, publication by, 104

observatory work (terrestrial magnetism), 33, 44-53.
See also College (Alaska) Observatory; Huancayo
Magnetic Observatory; Watheroo Magnetic Ob-
servatory

oceanography, see Carnegie, the

Office of Scientific Research and Development, 3, 4,
3, 19, 27, 31, 34, 55, 164

Osborn, Elburt F., studies in geophysics, vii, 29
publication by, 29

Osborn, William Church, vi

Packard, E. L., studies in paleontology, 194

paleobotany, studies in, 74-75, 103, 192-193

paleontology, studies in, 190-198. See also archaeol-
ogy; paleobotany

Parkinson, W. D., observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism), 47, 48

Parkinson, Wilfred C, observatory work (terrestrial
magnetism), vii, 44, 48
publication by, 58

Parmelee, James, vi

Parsons, Wm. Barclay, vi

Paton, Stewart, vi

Peavey, R. C, studies in terrestrial magnetism, 42

Pepper, George W., vi

Perret, Frank A., studies in geophysics, ix

Pershing, John J., v

Pettit, Edison, studies in solar physics, vii, 3, 6, 11
publications by, 21

Phillips, M. L., publication by, 58

photosynthesis, see biochemical investigations

physical laboratory, Mount Wilson, 3, 18-19

physics, see biophysical studies; cosmic rays; geo-
physics; terrestrial magnetism

physiology, studies in, 174-175. See also embryology;
nutrition

physiology of the fetus, studies in, 111-112

Pickering, William H., studies on cosmic rays, 66
publications by, 68

Pierce, Keith, solar research, 5

Piggot, Charles S., studies in geophysics, vii, 54

planets, studies on, 8, 23

Plant Biology, Division of, viii, 7, 71-104, 168
report of Chairman of Division of, 71-104

206

INDEX

plant biology, studies in, 7, 71-104, 168-169. $ ee a ^ so
maize genetics; polyploidy investigations

Plant Physiology, Laboratory for, viii. See also Plant
Biology, Division of

Pogo, Alexander, studies in history of science, viii,

l8 .5 .
publications by, 186

Pollock, Harry E. D., studies in archaeology, viii, 177

polyploidy investigations, 123, 124, 153-157. See also

experimental taxonomy

Posnjak, Eugene, studies in geophysics, vii

Post-Columbian American History, Section of, viii.

See also history of the Maya area ;, United States

history

post-war problems, 8—10

Potter, James S., studies in mouse genetics, viii, 123,

126-129

publication by, 160

Powell, Wilson M., studies in physics, ix, 62, 68-69

publications by, 69

Pratt, Philip C, studies on reproductive organs and

their hormones, 114

publication by, 121

Prentis, Henning W., Jr., v, xix

President, v, xi, xxi

Office of the, x

publication by the, 200

Report of the, xix, xxi, 1—10

presidents, former, vi

Pritchett, Henry S., vi

Proskouriakoff, Tatiana. studies in archaeology, viii,

}77, 185
Publications and Public Relations. Office of, x, xi, 5

Rauch, V. M., endocrine studies, 126, 129-139
Rayner, Jeannette F., studies in nutrition, 163
Redfield, Helen, studies in genetics, 171-174
Redfield, Robert, studies in anthropology, ix, 1 80-1 81
Reiner, L., studies in nutrition, 164
reproductive organs and their hormones, studies on,

6, 105, 112-116
research associates, ix

reports of, 23-25, 61-69, 167-175, 189-198
Resser, Charles E., studies in paleontology, 197
Reuyl, Dirk, studies in astronomy, 24

publications by, 25
Revelle, Roger Randall, studies in physical oceanog-
raphy, 54
Reynolds, Samuel R. M., studies on reproductive or-
gans and their hormones, viii, 114

publications by, 121
Richardson, F. B., studies in archaeology, 177
Richardson, Robert S., studies in solar physics, vii,

3,5,7. 8
publications by, 21
Richmond, Myrtle L., studies in solar physics, 3, 8

publications by, 21
Riddle, Oscar, endocrine studies, viii, J, 125, 126,
129-139
publications by, 160, 161
Roberts, Howard S., studies in geophysics, vii
Roberts, Richard B., studies in atomic physics, vii, 42
Rock, John, studies in embryology, 105, 108, 120,
169-170
publications by, 170
Rollins, Reed C, desert investigations, 100, 101
publication by, 104

Rooney, William J., studies in terrestrial electricity,

vii, 37
Root, Elihu, vi, xii, xiii
Root, Elihu, Jr., v, xix, 4
Root, Howard F., studies in nutrition, 163, 164, 165

publication by, 165
Rosales, Juan, studies in social anthropology, 180, 181
Rosenwald, Julius, vi
Rossman, I., studies on reproductive organs and their

hormones, 112
publication by, 121, 199
Rowe, John Howland, publication by, 186
Roys, Ralph L., studies in post-Columbian American

history, viii, 177, 181-183, 185
Ruppert, Karl, studies in archaeology, viii, 177, 185

publication by, 185, 187, 199
Russell, G. Oscar, studies in physiology, 174-175
Russell, Henry Norris, studies in astronomy, ix, 4, 7,

9, 18, 24
publications by, 21
Ryerson, Martin A., vi

Sanford, Roscoe F., studies in stellar spectroscopy,
vii, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17
publications by, 20, 21
Sansome, Eva R., studies on the gene, 124, 139-147
Sapsford, H. B., observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism), 52
publications by, 58
Sarton, George, studies in history of science, viii, 184-

l8 .5 .
publications by, 187

Satterthwaite, Linton, Jr., publication by, 186
Schairer, John F., studies in geophysics, vii
Scholes, France V., studies in post-Columbian Ameri-
can history, viii, 177, 1 81-183, 185
publication by, 186
Schultz, A. H., studies in comparative anatomy, 117,
118
publication by, 121
Scott, Walter E., studies in terrestrial magnetism, vii,
34, 35, 44, 45
publications by, 57, 58
Seares, Frederick H., studies in astronomy, ix, 4, 10
Seares, Mary Joyner, studies in stellar photometry,

3, 4, 10, 11

Seaton, Stuart L., observatory work (terrestrial mag-
netism), vii, 52

Seibert, H. C, publication by, 161

Setchell, William Albert, publication by, 54, 200

Seyfert, Carl K., publications by, 21

Shapley, Alan H., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 34

Shepard, Anna O., studies in archaeology, viii, 177,
178-179

Shepherd, Earnest S., studies in geophysics, vii

Shepley, Henry R., v, xix, xxii

Sherman, H. C, studies in nutrition, ix

Sherman, Kenneth L., studies in terrestrial magnetism
and electricity, vii, 36, 37, 52, 64

Shook, Edwin M., studies in archaeology, viii, 177,
179

Shorr, Ephraim, endocrine studies, 136

Shreve, Forrest, desert investigations, viii, 100-103
publication by, 104

Shutt, Ralph P., studies on cosmic rays, 65
publications by, 65

INDEX

207

Silsbce, H. B., publication by, 58

Silverman, Leslie, studies in nutrition, 164-165

publication by, 165
Sitterly, Mrs. B. W., studies in solar physics, 18. See

also Moore, Charlotte E.
Skilling, William T., publication by, 21
Smith, A., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 33
Smith, A. Ledyard, studies in archaeology, viii, 177

publication by, 185, 199
Smith, Ernest K., studies on cosmic rays, 66
Smith, G. C, endocrine studies, 126, 129-139

publication by, 160
Smith, James H. C, biochemical investigations, viii,

75-91

publication by, 104
Smith, Robert E., studies in archaeology, viii, 177
Smith, Theobald, vi

Snow, Janice, studies in archaeology, 178
social anthropology, studies in, 1 80-1 81
sociology, see social anthropology
solar research, 7, 3, 5-8. See also cosmic rays; ter-
restrial magnetism
Solier, Wilfrido du, publication by, 186
Soule, F. M., studies in physical oceanography, 54
Speert, Harold, studies on physiology of the fetus, 11 1

publication by, 121
Spoehr, Herman A., biochemical investigations, viii,

7, .75791

publications by, 104

report of Chairman of Division of Plant Biology,
71-104
Spooner, John C, vi, xii
stars, see stellar investigations
Stebbins, Joel, studies in astronomy, ix, 4, 9

publications by, 21, 22
Steggerda, Morris, studies in anthropology, viii, 126,
157-160

publications by, 161
Steiner, William F., studies in geophysics, vii
stellar investigations, 3, 9-15, 23-25
stellar spectroscopy, studies in, y, 3, 11-15
Stewart, Robert M., desert investigations, 100
Stock, Chester, studies in paleontology, ix, 193, 195
Stock, Leo F., studies in United States history, viii,
183-184

publications by, 187
Storey, William Benson, vi
Stotz, Elmer, studies in nutrition, 163
Strain, Harold H., biochemical investigations, viii,

75-91
publications by, 104

Stratton, F. G. M., studies in astronomy, 4
Straus, W. L., Jr., studies in comparative anatomy,
116, 117
publications by, 121
Streeter, George L., studies in embryology, viii, ix,
105, 107, 108, 109
publication by, 122, 199
Stromberg, Gustaf, studies in stellar spectroscopy,
vii, 3
publications by, 21
Stromsvik, Gustav, studies in archaeology, viii, 177
Strong, Richard P., v, xix, 4

Stuart, S. L., studies in physical oceanography, 54
Sturgis, Somers H., studies on reproductive organs
and their hormones, 1 1 6
publication by, 121

sun, see solar research

Sutton, Eileen, studies on the gene, 143

Sverdrup, H. U., studies in physical oceanography, 54

Swearingen, T., studies on cosmic rays, 66

Swift, Dorothy R., x

Swings, P., studies in astronomy, 4

Taft, Charles P., v, xix

Taft, William H., vi

Tate, John T., studies in physics, ix

Tattersall, W. M., publication by, 54, 200

Tax, Sol, studies in social anthropology, viii, 181

publication by, 187
Taylor, M. J., studies in mouse genetics, 126-129
terrestrial electricity, studies in, 32-33, 37-41
Terrestrial Magnetism, Department of, vii, 3, 6, 7,
31-59, 61, 62, 64

report of Director of Department of, 31-59
terrestrial magnetism, studies in, 7, 31-59. See also

cosmic rays
terrestrial sciences, vii, xi, 7, 27-69

Committee on, v
Thayer, William S., vi

Thompson, J. Eric S., studies in archaeology, viii, 177,
179

publications by, 186, 187
Thomson, Andrew, publication by, 54, 59, 199
Torreson, Oscar W., studies in terrestrial magnetism

and electricity, vii, 34, 37, 44
Treadwell, Aaron L., publication by, 54, 200
Trustees, Board of, v, xi, xix, xxi, xxii, 3, 4, 31

Abstract of Minutes of, xix

Committees of, v

former, vi
Tumin, Melvin, studies in social anthropology, 181
Tunell, George, studies in geophysics, vii, 27-28

publication by, 29
Tuttle, O. F., studies in geophysics, 28

publication by, 29
Tuve, Merle A., studies in atomic physics, vii, 42

United States Antarctic Expedition of 1939-1941, 34
United States History, Section of, viii. See also Post-
Columbian American History, Section of
United States history, studies in, 183-184
Urry, William D., studies in geophysics, vii

Vallarta, M. S., studies in physics, 61
van Maanen, Adriaan, studies on stellar motions and
statistics, vii, 3, 9
publications by, 22
Vargas F., Luis, studies on reproductive organs and
their hormones, 115
publications by, 122
Vestine, Ernest H., studies in terrestrial magnetism,

vh, 34> 35, 36, 37
publications by, 58
Villa Rojas, Alfonso, studies in social anthropology,

viii, 180, 181, 185
Visscher, F. E., endocrine studies, 129-139
Vyssotsky, A. N., publications by, 25

208

INDEX

Wadsworth, James W., v, xix

Wait, George R., studies in terrestrial electricity, vii,
37, 38, 40, 44
publications by, 58
Walcott, Charles D., vi, xii, xiii
Walcott, Frederic C, v, xix, xxii, 4
Walcott, Henry P., vi
Wallis, W. F., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 33, 34,

43
war activities, 3-4, 7, 3, 19, 27, 31, 71, 105, 123, 163
Ward, E. N., studies in mouse genetics, 126-129

publication by, 160
Ware, Louise, studies in solar physics, 3, 4
Warmke, Harry E., polyploidy investigations, viii,

123, 153-157
publications by, 161
Waterfall, U. T., desert investigations, 100
Watheroo Magnetic Observatory, 31, 32, 33, 38, 39,

40, 41, 44, 45, 46-48
Weaver, Harold F., studies in astronomy, 4
Weed, Lewis H., v, xix, xxii, 4
Welch, William H., vi
Wells, Harry W., studies in terrestrial magnetism, vii,

34, 37, 4i, 42
publications by, 58
Wetmore, Alexander, publication by, 54, 200
Wheeler, Hilda H., studies in anthropology, 157-160
White, Andrew D., vi, xii
White, Edward D., vi

White, Henry, vi

White, John, studies on cosmic rays, 66
White, T. N., publications by, 58
Whitford, A. E., stellar investigations, 9

publications by, 21, 22
Wickersham, George W., vi
Wiener, M., studies in terrestrial magnetism, 56
Wiggins, Ira L., desert investigations, 100, 10 1

publications by, 104
Williams, Emma T. R., publications by, 25
Wilson, Charles B., publication by, 54, 59
Wilson, Olin C, studies in stellar spectroscopy, vii, 3,

14
Wilson, Ralph E., studies on stellar motions and
spectroscopy, vii, 3, 12

publication by, 22
Wolff, G., publication by, 161
Woodward, Robert Simpson, vi
Wright, Carroll D., vi, xii, xiii
Wright, Fred E., studies in geophysics, vii

publication by, 56

report of Committee on Coordination of Cosmic-
Ray Investigations, 61-62

Zamenhof, S., publication by, 161
Zeigler, Jean, studies in archaeology, 179
Zies, Emanuel G., studies in geophysics, vii
Zimmer, Esther M., studies on the gene, 141
zoology, see biological sciences